Stepped Stone Structure

The largest Iron Age construction in Jerusalem, central to debates about the scale of the early Israelite capital and the historicity of the Davidic kingdom.

The Stepped Stone Structure is the most imposing ancient construction visible in the City of David archaeological park in Jerusalem. Rising approximately 18 meters on the eastern slope of the narrow ridge south of the Temple Mount, the structure is a massive retaining wall built of large, roughly worked stones arranged in a stepped or terraced pattern. It is the largest Iron Age structure found anywhere in Jerusalem.

The structure was first encountered by R.A.S. Macalister and J. Garrow Duncan during their excavations in the 1920s. Kathleen Kenyon's excavations in the 1960s exposed more of the structure and studied its construction. Yigal Shiloh's excavations in the 1970s and 1980s revealed the full extent of the visible portion. More recently, Eilat Mazar's excavations on the summit of the ridge above the Stepped Stone Structure have added to the discussion, as she claimed to have found a large public building that she identified as David's palace sitting on top of the retaining wall.

The date of the Stepped Stone Structure is debated. Pottery found in the fill beneath and within the structure spans the late Bronze Age to Iron Age I/IIA transition, roughly the twelfth to tenth centuries BCE. Some scholars date the initial construction to the late Bronze Age or early Iron Age I (twelfth to eleventh century), while others argue for a tenth century BCE date that would correspond to the Davidic period. The structure may have been built in phases, with a Bronze Age core and later Iron Age additions.

The purpose of the structure is also debated. The most common interpretation is that it served as a massive retaining wall supporting a large building or complex on the summit of the ridge. The steep eastern slope of the City of David required substantial terracing to create a level platform for construction at the top. The Stepped Stone Structure would have held back the fill and created the foundation for a citadel, palace, or fortification above.

This interpretation connects to the biblical account of David's capture of Jerusalem. Second Samuel 5:7 records that "David took the stronghold of Zion, that is, the City of David." Second Samuel 5:9 adds: "David lived in the stronghold and called it the City of David. And David built the city all around from the Millo inward." The term "Millo" (from the Hebrew root meaning "to fill") is commonly interpreted as the terraced fill that the Stepped Stone Structure retained. First Chronicles 11:8 provides a parallel: "He built the city all around from the Millo in complete circuit, and Joab repaired the rest of the city."

Eilat Mazar's identification of the Large Stone Structure above the Stepped Stone Structure as David's palace has been both influential and controversial. She argues that the large ashlar walls she found on the summit, directly above and continuous with the Stepped Stone Structure, represent a monumental building from the tenth century BCE. Critics argue that the dating evidence is ambiguous and that the walls could belong to different construction phases.

First Kings 9:15 mentions Solomon building "the wall of Jerusalem" and "the Millo," suggesting that the terrace system was expanded or reinforced during Solomon's reign. The ongoing maintenance of this massive structure through multiple reigns indicates its importance to the city's infrastructure.

The structure remains one of the most visited features at the City of David site. Its sheer size, visible from the Kidron Valley, gives visitors an immediate sense of the monumental construction that took place in ancient Jerusalem. Whatever its precise date and function, it demonstrates that significant engineering resources were invested in the City of David during the period when the Bible describes the establishment of the Israelite monarchy.

• Massive stepped retaining wall approximately 18 meters high, the largest Iron Age structure in Jerusalem
• Built of large, rough-hewn stones in a stepped/terraced pattern on the eastern slope of the City of David
• Dating spans the late Bronze Age to Iron Age I/IIA transition (12th-10th centuries BCE), with possible multiple construction phases
• Interpreted as a retaining wall for a large building or citadel on the summit of the ridge
• The "Millo" mentioned in 2 Samuel 5:9 and 1 Kings 9:15 is commonly identified with the fill retained by this structure
• Eilat Mazar's excavations above the structure claimed to find a "Large Stone Structure" identified as David's palace (interpretation debated)
• Multiple excavation campaigns spanning nearly a century (Macalister, Kenyon, Shiloh, Mazar) have studied the structure

The Stepped Stone Structure connects to the biblical account of David's Jerusalem through the term "Millo." Second Samuel 5:9 states: "David lived in the stronghold and called it the City of David. And David built the city all around from the Millo inward." The Hebrew "Millo" comes from the root meaning "to fill" and is understood as a reference to the terraced fill on the eastern slope, which the Stepped Stone Structure retained. First Kings 9:15 records that Solomon built "the house of the Lord and his own house and the Millo and the wall of Jerusalem." First Kings 9:24 adds: "As soon as Pharaoh's daughter came up from the City of David to her house that Solomon had built for her, he built the Millo." First Kings 11:27 notes that Solomon "built the Millo, and closed up the breach of the City of David his father." These repeated references show the Millo was a recognized feature requiring ongoing construction and repair. Second Samuel 5:7 identifies the site as "the stronghold of Zion," and the massive construction of the Stepped Stone Structure is consistent with a fortified acropolis that could be called a stronghold. First Chronicles 11:8 describes David building "the city all around from the Millo in complete circuit," with Joab repairing the rest.