The Composition
George Frideric Handel composed Messiah (HWV 56) between 22 August and 14 September 1741, completing the entire work in approximately 24 days at his home on Brook Street in London. The oratorio is scored for SATB soloists, SATB chorus, two oboes, two trumpets, timpani, strings, and basso continuo (organ and harpsichord). The work runs approximately two hours and twenty minutes in modern performance and is divided into three parts: Part I treats the prophecy of the Messiah and the Nativity; Part II covers the Passion, Resurrection, and Ascension; Part III addresses the promise of eternal life. The libretto was compiled by Charles Jennens, a wealthy English landowner and devout Anglican with deep knowledge of Scripture.
Biblical Text
Jennens drew his libretto entirely from the King James Bible and the Book of Common Prayer, selecting passages from Isaiah, Psalms, Malachi, Haggai, Zechariah, Matthew, Luke, John, Romans, 1 Corinthians, Hebrews, Lamentations, and Revelation. The opening tenor recitative sets Isaiah 40:1-3 ('Comfort ye, comfort ye my people'), while the famous 'Hallelujah' chorus combines Revelation 19:6 ('for the Lord God omnipotent reigneth'), Revelation 11:15 ('The kingdom of this world is become the kingdom of our Lord'), and Revelation 19:16 ('King of Kings, and Lord of Lords'). Jennens did not paraphrase; he arranged biblical verses in a theological argument, sometimes combining fragments from different books to build a doctrinal narrative. The soprano aria 'I know that my Redeemer liveth' sets Job 19:25-26 alongside 1 Corinthians 15:20, linking Old Testament hope with New Testament resurrection theology.
The Creator
Handel was 56 years old when he composed Messiah. Born in Halle, Saxony, in 1685, he had lived in London since 1712 and held British citizenship since 1727. By 1741, his Italian opera ventures had failed commercially, and he was pivoting to English-language oratorio. Though raised Lutheran, Handel worshipped as an Anglican for most of his adult life and was a regular communicant at St. George's, Hanover Square. Jennens had previously collaborated with Handel on Saul and Israel in Egypt and proposed the Messiah libretto as early as July 1741. Handel's motivations were both spiritual and practical: the Dublin premiere was a charity performance, and the oratorio format offered a commercially viable alternative to opera.
Musical Analysis
The work is structured as a sequence of recitatives, arias, and choruses without dramatic action or named characters. The overture is a French overture in E minor (grave followed by an allegro moderato fugue). Part I moves from the somber minor-key prophecies through the pastoral 'Pifa' (a siciliana representing the shepherds) to the jubilant 'Glory to God.' The 'Hallelujah' chorus in D major is built on a series of homophonic declamations alternating with fugal entries, creating a cumulative effect of overwhelming affirmation. Handel employs word-painting throughout: the bass aria 'The people that walked in darkness' uses chromatic wandering to depict spiritual blindness, while 'Every valley shall be exalted' features elaborate melismas on 'exalted' and descending figures on 'made low.' The alto aria 'He was despised' in E-flat major is one of the longest movements, its middle section depicting the scourging with sharp dotted rhythms.
Theological Content
Jennens structured the libretto to present the Christian narrative of salvation from prophecy through fulfillment. Part I is Advent and Christmas theology (Isaiah's prophecies, the Nativity). Part II is Passiontide and Easter (the suffering servant of Isaiah 53, the Resurrection, the Great Commission). Part III is eschatological (the resurrection of the dead from 1 Corinthians 15, the final triumph from Revelation). The work is broadly Anglican in orientation, avoiding specifically Catholic or Calvinist doctrinal positions. Jennens, who was sympathetic to the nonjurors, may have intended the libretto partly as a theological statement about the authority of Scripture over ecclesiastical politics.
Performance History
The premiere took place on 13 April 1742 at the New Music Hall on Fishamble Street, Dublin, as a benefit for Mercer's Hospital, the Charitable Infirmary, and prisoners' debt relief. The performance raised approximately 400 pounds and freed 142 debtors from prison. The London premiere followed on 23 March 1743 at the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden, where King George II was reportedly present (the tradition that he stood during the 'Hallelujah' chorus, prompting all to follow, dates from this performance, though the earliest written account of it comes from 1780). Handel conducted Messiah regularly at the Foundling Hospital from 1750 until his death in 1759, establishing it as a charitable institution. The 1784 Handel Commemoration at Westminster Abbey, directed by Joah Bates, employed over 500 performers. Mozart re-orchestrated the work in 1789 (K. 572), adding clarinets, flutes, and horns.
Cultural Impact
Messiah became the most frequently performed large-scale choral work in the English-speaking world. Annual performances became a Christmas tradition in Britain by the late eighteenth century, though the work was originally composed for Easter. The 'Hallelujah' chorus is performed at coronations, state funerals, and civic celebrations worldwide. In the United States, community 'Messiah sings' (where the audience forms the chorus) became widespread in the twentieth century. The work played a foundational role in establishing the English choral society tradition and remains the cornerstone of amateur choral repertoire globally.
Controversies
The work was controversial from its inception. The Bishop of London initially opposed its performance in a theater, considering it blasphemous to present Scripture as entertainment. Jennens himself was dissatisfied with Handel's setting, writing that Handel had made 'a fine Entertainment' but had not done justice to the text. The question of which performing edition to use has generated centuries of debate: Handel himself revised the work repeatedly, creating different versions for different soloists, and the Victorian tradition of massive orchestral forces (as in the Crystal Palace performances of 3,000-plus singers) has been challenged since the 1960s by historically informed performance practice. The standing tradition during the 'Hallelujah' chorus remains contentious among musicologists, some of whom regard it as apocryphal.
Legacy
Messiah has been translated and performed in German, French, Italian, and dozens of other languages. It has been recorded over 100 times. Arrangements range from the Mozart re-orchestration to Quincy Jones's gospel-jazz adaptation. The 'Hallelujah' chorus appears in films including The Shawshank Redemption and countless television programs. The work established the oratorio as a permanent fixture of Western concert life and influenced virtually every subsequent large-scale choral-orchestral composition.
Recommended Recordings
1. John Eliot Gardiner with the English Baroque Soloists and Monteverdi Choir (Philips, 1982) - the benchmark historically informed performance, restoring Handel's leaner orchestration and brisk tempi. 2. Sir Colin Davis with the London Symphony Orchestra and Chorus (LSO Live, 2007) - a modern-orchestra performance of warmth and grandeur, with outstanding soloists including Susan Gritton. 3. Trevor Pinnock with the English Concert (Archiv, 1988) - a period-instrument reading notable for its rhythmic vitality and the luminous soprano of Arleen Augér.