Apocalyptic Literature, 3
The Psalms of Solomon
The Psalms of Solomon is a collection of eighteen psalms written in the first century BC, likely in the aftermath of the Roman general Pompey's conquest of Jerusalem in 63 BC. Though attributed to Solomon, the author was probably a devout Pharisaic Jew who witnessed the trauma of Roman invasion and sought to make theological sense of it.
The second psalm describes a siege of Jerusalem and the death of the conqueror on the coast of Egypt, clearly referring to Pompey's capture of the city and his subsequent assassination in Egypt in 48 BC. The author interprets these events through the lens of divine justice: Jerusalem's suffering was deserved because of the sins of its inhabitants, but the foreign oppressor was also judged for his arrogance.
The most significant psalm for biblical studies is the seventeenth, which contains one of the most detailed pre-Christian descriptions of the expected Messiah. The author prays for God to raise up a king from David's line who will purge Jerusalem of Gentile oppressors, gather the scattered tribes, and reign in righteousness. This Messiah will rule not by military might but by the word of his mouth and the holiness of his life: "He will not put his trust in horse and rider and bow, nor will he multiply for himself gold and silver for war" (Psalms of Solomon 17:33). This messianic portrait provides crucial background for understanding first-century Jewish expectations that Jesus both fulfilled and transcended.
The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs
The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs purports to contain the final words of each of Jacob's twelve sons to their descendants, modeled on Jacob's own deathbed blessings (Genesis 49). Each testament follows a similar pattern: the patriarch recounts episodes from his life, draws moral lessons, and offers predictions about the future.
The moral teaching is notable for its emphasis on virtues such as compassion, honesty, and sexual purity, and its warnings against vices like envy, anger, and deceit. The Testament of Gad urges forgiveness of those who wrong us. The Testament of Benjamin exhorts imitation of "the good man" who shows mercy to all. These ethical teachings show interesting parallels with the Sermon on the Mount and other New Testament moral instruction.
The work contains messianic expectations centered on the tribes of Levi (priestly) and Judah (royal), anticipating a dual messianic figure. Some passages speak of a savior who will arise from Levi, while others point to the traditional Davidic king from Judah. The relationship between the Jewish original and later Christian additions to the text remains debated among scholars, but the work provides valuable evidence of diverse messianic expectations in Second Temple Judaism.
The Assumption of Moses
The Assumption of Moses (also called the Testament of Moses) claims to contain Moses' final instructions to Joshua, including a prophetic review of Israel's history from the conquest to the end times. The work was likely composed in the early first century AD, as it appears to reference the reign of Herod the Great and the early Roman procurators.
The text is notable for its fierce opposition to Hellenizing influences and its conviction that God would intervene decisively in history to vindicate His faithful people. A particularly moving section describes a father named Taxo who, along with his seven sons, chooses to die rather than violate God's commandments, trusting that their blood will be avenged by divine judgment.
The Assumption of Moses is mentioned in the New Testament letter of Jude, which refers to a dispute between the archangel Michael and the devil over Moses' body (Jude 9), an episode that apparently drew on this or a closely related tradition.
Significance for Understanding the New Testament
These pseudepigraphal writings are invaluable for understanding the world into which Christianity was born. They reveal the diversity of Jewish religious thought in the centuries before Christ, including varied expectations about the Messiah, the resurrection, divine judgment, and the fate of the righteous and wicked.
The Psalms of Solomon's portrait of a righteous, non-violent Messiah who reigns through holiness rather than military power provides striking parallels with Jesus' own understanding of His mission. The ethical teachings of the Testaments echo themes that Jesus and the apostles would develop. The apocalyptic framework of divine intervention, final judgment, and the vindication of the faithful shapes the theological vocabulary of the entire New Testament.
These works also illuminate specific New Testament passages. Paul's discussion of the two Adams (Romans 5:12-21; 1 Corinthians 15:45-49) resonates with intertestamental reflections on Adam's fall. The Letter of Jude's reference to the Assumption of Moses (Jude 9) shows that New Testament authors were familiar with this literature. Jesus' own apocalyptic discourse (Mark 13; Matthew 24-25) employs imagery and concepts rooted in the apocalyptic tradition.
The Canon and the Pseudepigrapha
None of these works were accepted into the Jewish or Protestant Christian canons, though some circulated widely and were valued by various communities. The Psalms of Solomon was included in some early Christian manuscript collections, and the Codex Alexandrinus's table of contents apparently listed it. The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs was preserved primarily by Christian copyists who sometimes added their own interpolations.
While not authoritative for doctrine, these writings serve as an essential historical bridge between the Old and New Testaments. They demonstrate that biblical faith was living and dynamic during the intertestamental period, as faithful Jews wrestled with the meaning of their Scriptures under conditions of foreign oppression and cultural pressure, laying the groundwork for the explosive impact of the gospel proclamation.
Biblical Context
These pseudepigraphal works relate to many biblical texts. The Psalms of Solomon draw heavily on the canonical Psalms and prophetic messianic passages (2 Samuel 7:12-16; Isaiah 11:1-9; Jeremiah 23:5-6). The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs build on Jacob's blessings in Genesis 49. The Assumption of Moses expands on Deuteronomy 31-34 and is referenced in Jude 9. The messianic expectations in these works provide essential background for the Gospels' presentation of Jesus as the Christ. Paul's letters and the Book of Revelation employ apocalyptic imagery rooted in this literary tradition.
Theological Significance
These writings demonstrate the vitality of Jewish theological reflection between the Testaments. They show that messianic hope, belief in resurrection and final judgment, concern for personal righteousness, and expectation of divine intervention were central themes of Jewish faith in the centuries before Christ. Understanding these works helps modern readers appreciate how the New Testament both continued and transformed existing Jewish theological categories. The diversity of messianic expectations highlights the uniqueness of Jesus' self-understanding as a Messiah who conquers through suffering and death rather than military victory.
Historical Background
The pseudepigraphal literature was composed during the turbulent period from the Maccabean revolt (167-160 BC) through the early Roman period. The Psalms of Solomon were written after Pompey's conquest of Jerusalem (63 BC). The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs likely originated in the second century BC, with possible later Christian additions. The Assumption of Moses dates to the early first century AD. These works were preserved in various languages (Greek, Latin, Ethiopic, Armenian, Slavonic), often through Christian monastic copying traditions. The Dead Sea Scrolls have provided Hebrew and Aramaic fragments of some related texts, confirming their Jewish origins and pre-Christian date.