Bible, The, IV Canonicity
What Canonicity Means
The word "canon" comes from the Greek word meaning "rule" or "measuring rod." When applied to Scripture, it refers to the collection of books recognized as divinely inspired and authoritative for faith and practice. Canonicity is not about human beings conferring authority on certain writings but rather about the community of faith recognizing the authority these writings already possessed. The books of the Bible were not made authoritative by being included in the canon; they were included in the canon because they were already recognized as authoritative.
This distinction matters greatly. The church did not create the canon so much as receive it. As Paul wrote, "All Scripture is breathed out by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness" (2 Timothy 3:16). The process of canonization was the community's response to what God had already done through inspired authors.
The Formation of the Old Testament Canon
The Old Testament canon developed gradually over more than a thousand years. Moses wrote the foundational covenant documents that were preserved beside the ark (Deuteronomy 31:24-26). Joshua added to this written record (Joshua 24:26), and subsequent prophets and scribes continued the process of composing and collecting inspired writings.
By the time of Jesus, the Old Testament was commonly referred to as "the Law and the Prophets" (Matthew 5:17) or sometimes as "the Law of Moses, the Prophets, and the Psalms" (Luke 24:44), reflecting the three-part division of the Hebrew Bible: Torah (Law), Nevi'im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings). Jesus clearly regarded these Scriptures as authoritative, declaring that "Scripture cannot be broken" (John 10:35) and that "not an iota, not a dot, will pass from the Law until all is accomplished" (Matthew 5:18).
The 39 books of the Protestant Old Testament correspond to the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible (the difference in number results from different ways of counting, not different content). The Jewish historian Josephus, writing around AD 95, affirmed that the Jews recognized 22 books (another counting method for the same collection) and noted that nothing had been added to them since the time of the Persian king Artaxerxes.
The Formation of the New Testament Canon
The New Testament canon took shape more quickly than the Old Testament, though the process still spanned several centuries. The apostolic writings carried inherent authority from the beginning. Peter recognized Paul's letters as Scripture (2 Peter 3:15-16), and Paul quoted Luke's Gospel alongside Deuteronomy as authoritative Scripture (1 Timothy 5:18, citing Luke 10:7).
By the late second century, the core of the New Testament canon was firmly established. The four Gospels, Acts, and Paul's major epistles were universally accepted. Some books, such as Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude, and Revelation, were disputed in certain regions before gaining universal recognition. The earliest known list matching the modern 27-book New Testament canon appears in Athanasius's Easter letter of AD 367.
Church councils at Hippo (AD 393) and Carthage (AD 397) formally affirmed the 27-book canon, but these councils were recognizing an existing consensus rather than imposing a new decision. The criteria for recognizing canonical books included apostolic authorship or connection, consistency with the received faith, and widespread acceptance among the churches.
The Question of the Apocrypha
The status of the deuterocanonical books (also called the Apocrypha) has been debated throughout church history. These works, including Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach, Baruch, and 1-2 Maccabees, were included in the Greek Septuagint but were not part of the Hebrew canon. Early church fathers like Jerome distinguished between the canonical Hebrew books and these additional writings, which he considered edifying but not authoritative for establishing doctrine.
The Protestant Reformers followed Jerome's position, while the Roman Catholic Church affirmed the deuterocanonical books as fully canonical at the Council of Trent in 1546. Eastern Orthodox churches generally accept a slightly different collection of additional books. This ongoing discussion highlights the importance of understanding the principles by which canonicity is determined.
Why Canonicity Matters Today
The question of canonicity is ultimately a question of trust: Can we trust that the Bible we hold contains the books God intended for His people? The careful, centuries-long process of canonical recognition, guided by the Holy Spirit working through the believing community, provides strong assurance that the canon is reliable.
Jesus Himself affirmed the Old Testament canon by quoting from it extensively and treating it as the authoritative word of God (Matthew 4:4, 7, 10). He also promised that the Holy Spirit would guide His apostles into all truth (John 16:13), providing the foundation for the New Testament writings. The consistency of the canonical books in their testimony to God's redemptive plan, from Genesis to Revelation, stands as powerful evidence of their divine origin and unity.
Biblical Context
The concept of canonical authority appears throughout Scripture. Moses commanded that the Law be kept beside the ark (Deuteronomy 31:24-26). Joshua added to the written record (Joshua 24:26). Later kings were evaluated by their faithfulness to the Law (2 Kings 22-23). Jesus consistently affirmed the Old Testament as God's word (Matthew 5:17-18; Luke 24:44; John 10:35). The apostles recognized each other's writings as Scripture (2 Peter 3:15-16; 1 Timothy 5:18). The entire canon tells one unified story of creation, fall, redemption, and restoration.
Theological Significance
Canonicity undergirds the entire Christian faith because it determines which writings carry divine authority. If the canon is unreliable, then the foundation for Christian doctrine becomes uncertain. The doctrine of canonicity affirms that God not only inspired the writing of Scripture but also providentially guided its preservation and recognition. It demonstrates that God communicates clearly and ensures His people have access to His revealed will, fulfilling Jesus' promise that His words would never pass away (Matthew 24:35).
Historical Background
The Dead Sea Scrolls (discovered 1947-1956) confirmed that the Old Testament text was transmitted with remarkable accuracy over many centuries. The Muratorian Fragment (c. AD 170) provides one of the earliest lists of accepted New Testament books. Church fathers like Irenaeus, Origen, Eusebius, and Athanasius discussed canonical boundaries extensively. The Jewish Council of Jamnia (c. AD 90), once thought to have formally closed the Old Testament canon, is now understood to have been more of a discussion than a definitive ruling. Ancient manuscripts like Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus (4th century AD) preserve early collections of the biblical books.