Children of God
The Concept in the Old Testament
The Old Testament uses the language of divine sonship in several distinct ways. The most ancient references speak of heavenly beings or angels as "sons of God" who present themselves before the Lord (Job 1:6; 2:1; 38:7). These are spiritual creatures belonging to the divine court, called "sons" because of their origin from God's creative act.
More significantly for biblical theology, God calls the nation of Israel his son. At the burning bush, God instructed Moses to tell Pharaoh, "Israel is my firstborn son" (Exodus 4:22). Hosea recalled this national sonship: "When Israel was a child, I loved him, and out of Egypt I called my son" (Hosea 11:1). This sonship was rooted not in nature but in covenant: God chose Israel, delivered them from slavery, and bound them to himself in a special relationship.
The kings of Israel bore the title "son of God" as representatives of the covenant nation. God's promise to David regarding Solomon declared, "I will be his father, and he will be my son" (2 Samuel 7:14). The coronation psalm proclaimed, "You are my Son; today I have begotten you" (Psalm 2:7). This royal sonship carried the expectation of obedience and justice, and its ultimate fulfillment pointed toward the Messiah.
Some Old Testament passages hint at a more personal and individual sense of divine sonship. The psalmist cried out, "As a father has compassion on his children, so the LORD has compassion on those who fear him" (Psalm 103:13). Moses reminded Israel that "the LORD your God carried you, as a father carries his son" (Deuteronomy 1:31). These images of fatherly care prepare the way for the fuller revelation to come.
Jesus as the Unique Son
Jesus' sonship stands in a category entirely its own. At his baptism, the voice from heaven declared, "This is my Son, whom I love; with him I am well pleased" (Matthew 3:17). This declaration echoes both the royal Psalm 2 and the servant language of Isaiah 42:1, identifying Jesus as both the messianic King and the faithful servant of God.
Jesus consistently distinguished his own relationship with God from that of his disciples. He spoke of "my Father" and "your Father" but never lumped himself together with others by saying "our Father" in a way that equalized the relationships. In his teaching in Matthew 11:27, he revealed the exclusive mutual knowledge between Father and Son: "No one knows the Son except the Father, and no one knows the Father except the Son and those to whom the Son chooses to reveal him."
John's Gospel emphasizes Jesus' unique sonship through the term "only begotten" or "one and only" Son (John 1:14, 18; 3:16). Jesus shares the divine nature by eternal generation, not by creation or adoption. His sonship is the basis and model for all other divine sonship.
Becoming Children of God Through Faith
The New Testament teaches that human beings become children of God not by nature but by grace through faith in Jesus Christ. John stated the principle clearly: "To all who did receive him, to those who believed in his name, he gave the right to become children of God—children born not of natural descent, nor of human decision or a husband's will, but born of God" (John 1:12-13).
Paul developed this truth through the metaphor of adoption. In Roman law, an adopted son received all the rights and privileges of a natural-born heir. Paul wrote, "You received God's Spirit when he adopted you as his own children. Now we call him, 'Abba, Father'" (Romans 8:15). The Aramaic word "Abba," an intimate term of family address, indicates the closeness of the relationship believers enjoy with God.
This adoption is accomplished through union with Christ. "For you are all children of God through faith, for all of you who were baptized into Christ have clothed yourselves with Christ" (Galatians 3:26-27). Believers become children of God by being united to the Son of God. Their sonship is derivative of and dependent upon his.
The Privileges and Responsibilities of God's Children
Being a child of God carries extraordinary privileges. Believers are heirs of God and co-heirs with Christ, sharing in his inheritance (Romans 8:17). They have access to God in prayer with the confidence of children approaching a loving father (Ephesians 3:12). They receive the discipline that proves God's fatherly love (Hebrews 12:5-11). They are assured that nothing can separate them from the love of their Father (Romans 8:38-39).
Yet the identity also carries responsibilities. John wrote that "everyone who has this hope in him purifies himself, just as he is pure" (1 John 3:3). Children of God are expected to reflect the family character: "Be imitators of God, as beloved children" (Ephesians 5:1). Jesus taught that peacemakers "will be called children of God" (Matthew 5:9), and that love for enemies demonstrates family resemblance to the Father "who causes his sun to rise on the evil and the good" (Matthew 5:44-45).
Paul contrasted the children of God with the children of the world. In Philippians 2:15, he urged believers to "shine among them like stars in the sky" as "children of God without fault in a warped and crooked generation." John drew the sharpest contrast: "This is how we know who the children of God are and who the children of the devil are: Anyone who does not do what is right is not God's child, nor is anyone who does not love their brother and sister" (1 John 3:10).
The Future Glory of God's Children
The full realization of divine sonship belongs to the future. Paul taught that "the creation waits in eager expectation for the children of God to be revealed" (Romans 8:19). Believers presently groan inwardly, "waiting eagerly for our adoption to sonship, the redemption of our bodies" (Romans 8:23). The resurrection will complete what was begun at conversion.
John expressed the same hope: "Dear friends, now we are children of God, and what we will be has not yet been made known. But we know that when Christ appears, we shall be like him, for we shall see him as he is" (1 John 3:2). The final destiny of God's children is to be fully conformed to the image of the Son, sharing his glorified existence forever.
Biblical Context
The concept appears across the entire Bible. Old Testament foundations include Exodus 4:22, Deuteronomy 14:1, 2 Samuel 7:14, Psalm 2:7, and Hosea 11:1. Jesus' unique sonship is declared at his baptism (Matthew 3:17) and transfiguration (Matthew 17:5), and throughout John's Gospel (John 1:14, 18; 3:16; 5:17-23). Believers' adoption appears in John 1:12-13, Romans 8:14-17, Galatians 3:26-4:7, and Ephesians 1:5. The eschatological completion is described in Romans 8:19-23 and 1 John 3:1-3.
Theological Significance
The doctrine of divine sonship through adoption is central to the Christian understanding of salvation. It demonstrates that God's purpose in redemption is not merely legal acquittal but intimate family relationship. Adoption through Christ abolishes all human distinctions in spiritual standing (Galatians 3:28), creating a new community defined by shared identity as God's children. The doctrine provides assurance of God's fatherly care, motivation for holy living, and hope for future glorification. It connects Christology and soteriology: believers become children of God only through union with the eternal Son.
Historical Background
Roman adoption law, which Paul uses as his primary metaphor, was a legally binding process that transferred a person from one family to another, canceling all prior debts and obligations and conferring full rights of inheritance. This background illuminates Paul's teaching that believers receive a new identity, a new family, and a guaranteed inheritance. The early church debated the nature of Christ's sonship extensively, with the Council of Nicaea (AD 325) affirming that the Son is 'begotten, not made,' eternally sharing the Father's divine nature. The Reformation emphasized adoption as a distinct benefit of salvation alongside justification and sanctification.