Custom (1)
What Were Biblical Customs?
In biblical usage, 'custom' refers not to cultural traditions but to various forms of taxes, tolls, and duties imposed by governing authorities. These levies were collected on goods, trade, and sometimes individuals, representing a significant aspect of economic life in ancient Israel and the surrounding empires. The term appears in multiple forms across Scripture, reflecting different types of taxation systems encountered by God's people throughout their history.
Customs in the Old Testament
The Old Testament mentions customs primarily in the context of the Persian Empire's administration of Judah. In Ezra, officials write to King Artaxerxes warning that if Jerusalem's walls are rebuilt, the people will stop paying 'toll, tribute, and custom' (Ezra 4:13). This threefold distinction likely represents different categories of taxation: tolls on goods in transit, tribute as a regular payment to the sovereign, and customs as duties on merchandise. The Hebrew terms used—'halakh' and 'belo'—suggest these were either road taxes or levies on agricultural produce and commercial goods. These customs were part of the Persian imperial system that allowed Jewish exiles to return but maintained economic control over the province.
Customs in the New Testament
The New Testament presents customs within the Roman taxation system, particularly through the figure of the tax collector (publican). Matthew (also called Levi) was sitting at the 'place of toll' or 'receipt of custom' when Jesus called him to discipleship (Matthew 9:9; Mark 2:14; Luke 5:27). These customs stations were located along trade routes, at city gates, and in ports, where duties were collected on goods being transported. The Greek terms 'telos' and 'telōnion' refer to these indirect taxes, which were often farmed out to private collectors who paid the Roman government for the right to collect taxes and kept any surplus as profit. This system led to widespread corruption and made tax collectors like Matthew and Zacchaeus social outcasts.
The Social and Political Impact
Customs represented more than just economic transactions—they carried significant social and political weight. In the Old Testament, paying customs to foreign rulers symbolized submission and reminded Israel of their subjugated status. In the New Testament, Roman customs were a daily reminder of Israel's occupation by a pagan power. The collection system created a despised class of Jewish collaborators (publicans) who were viewed as traitors and sinners. Jesus' association with these figures—calling Matthew as a disciple and dining with Zacchaeus—challenged social boundaries and demonstrated the inclusive nature of his ministry (Luke 19:1-10).
Jesus' Teaching on Customs
Jesus addressed the issue of customs directly in several teachings. When questioned about paying taxes to Caesar, he famously responded, 'Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and to God the things that are God's' (Mark 12:17). In Matthew 17:24-27, when asked if he pays the temple tax (a different type of religious levy), Jesus instructs Peter to pay it 'so as not to give offense,' while simultaneously asserting his sonship and freedom from such obligations. The apostle Paul later instructed Christians to pay taxes to governing authorities as part of their civic responsibility (Romans 13:6-7). These teachings established principles for believers living under secular governments while maintaining ultimate allegiance to God.
Biblical Context
The concept of 'custom' as tax appears in several biblical books and contexts. In the Old Testament, it's primarily found in Ezra (4:13, 20; 7:24) within the context of Persian administration of Judah. In the New Testament, customs appear in the Gospels' narratives about tax collectors (Matthew 9:9; Mark 2:14; Luke 5:27), Jesus' teaching about paying taxes (Matthew 17:24-27; 22:15-22), and Paul's instruction to believers (Romans 13:6-7). The term also appears in the Apocrypha (1 Maccabees 10:31; 11:35) describing Seleucid taxation. Customs play a narrative role in highlighting political subjugation, creating social outcasts (tax collectors), and providing contexts for Jesus' revolutionary interactions and teachings.
Theological Significance
Biblical customs carry theological significance in several dimensions. First, they highlight the tension between God's kingdom and earthly authorities, forcing believers to navigate dual allegiances. Jesus' teachings transform customs from mere political issues into matters of discipleship, emphasizing that while believers have civic responsibilities, their ultimate loyalty belongs to God. Second, customs provide the social context for Jesus' radical inclusion, as he calls tax collectors—despised for their collaboration with Rome and corruption—into discipleship and fellowship. This demonstrates God's grace extending to society's outcasts. Third, customs illustrate the economic dimensions of biblical faith, showing how financial practices intersect with spiritual obedience. Finally, the transformation of tax collectors like Matthew and Zacchaeus exemplifies the gospel's power to redeem not just individuals but their vocational practices and social relationships.
Historical Background
Historically, customs were part of sophisticated taxation systems in ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean empires. The Persian Empire (539-332 BCE), under which the events of Ezra occur, maintained an extensive system of provincial taxation that included road tolls, tariffs on goods, and agricultural levies. These funded imperial administration and projects. The Roman system during New Testament times employed tax farming ('publicani'), where private individuals bid for the right to collect taxes in a region, paying Rome a set amount and keeping any excess. This system, while efficient for Rome, encouraged corruption and exploitation. Archaeological evidence includes tax records on ostraca (pottery fragments), customs house remains in places like Capernaum (where Matthew likely worked), and historical documents describing Roman tax rates on various goods. Jewish historian Josephus records tax revolts and resentment toward Roman taxation, providing context for the strong feelings against tax collectors in Jesus' day.