Daniel, Book of
Setting and Structure
The Book of Daniel is set during the Babylonian exile (6th century BC) and continues into the early Persian period. Daniel, a young Jewish nobleman, was taken captive to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar around 605 BC and trained for service in the royal court (Daniel 1:1-6). The book divides naturally into two halves: chapters 1-6 contain narrative accounts of Daniel and his companions in the Babylonian and Persian courts, while chapters 7-12 record Daniel's apocalyptic visions of future world empires and the coming kingdom of God.
A notable feature of the book is its bilingual nature: Daniel 2:4 through 7:28 is written in Aramaic (the common language of the ancient Near East), while the rest is in Hebrew. This has prompted extensive scholarly discussion, with some viewing the Aramaic section as addressing a broader audience and the Hebrew sections as focused on Israel's particular concerns.
The Narrative Section (Chapters 1-6)
The first half of Daniel presents a series of dramatic stories that demonstrate God's sovereignty over earthly kingdoms. Daniel and his three friends — Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego — refuse to compromise their faith despite enormous pressure. In chapter 1, they refuse the king's food and flourish on a simple diet. In chapter 3, the three friends refuse to worship Nebuchadnezzar's golden image and are thrown into a fiery furnace, where God delivers them and a mysterious fourth figure appears (Daniel 3:24-25).
Daniel's ability to interpret dreams and mysterious signs brings him to prominence. He interprets Nebuchadnezzar's dream of a great statue made of different metals, representing successive world empires, culminating in a stone "cut out by no human hand" that destroys the statue and fills the earth — symbolizing God's eternal kingdom (Daniel 2:31-45). The writing on the wall at Belshazzar's feast (Daniel 5) and Daniel's miraculous preservation in the lions' den under Darius the Mede (Daniel 6) further demonstrate that the God of Israel controls the rise and fall of nations.
The Apocalyptic Visions (Chapters 7-12)
The second half shifts from third-person narrative to first-person accounts of Daniel's own visions. Chapter 7 presents four beasts rising from the sea, representing successive empires, followed by the appearance of "one like a son of man" who receives everlasting dominion from the "Ancient of Days" (Daniel 7:13-14). Jesus adopted this title "Son of Man" as his primary self-designation, investing it with messianic meaning.
Chapter 8 describes a vision of a ram and a goat, interpreted as the Medo-Persian and Greek empires. Chapter 9 contains Daniel's prayer of confession for Israel's sins and the famous prophecy of "seventy weeks" decreed for the people and the holy city (Daniel 9:24-27), a passage that has generated extensive interpretive discussion. Chapters 10-12 present a detailed vision of conflicts between kingdoms and culminate in the clearest Old Testament statement of bodily resurrection: "Many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt" (Daniel 12:2).
Key Theological Themes
The overarching message of Daniel is that God is sovereign over all human history. Earthly empires rise and fall at his command: "He changes times and seasons; he removes kings and sets up kings" (Daniel 2:21). No matter how powerful a ruler becomes, he is subject to the Most High God. Nebuchadnezzar learned this lesson through humiliation: "the Most High rules the kingdom of men and gives it to whom he will" (Daniel 4:32).
Faithfulness under pressure is a central theme. Daniel and his friends model courageous obedience to God in a hostile cultural environment, trusting that God will vindicate his people even if he does not deliver them from immediate danger. Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego declared: "Our God whom we serve is able to deliver us ... but if not, be it known to you, O king, that we will not serve your gods" (Daniel 3:17-18).
The book also contributes significantly to biblical eschatology. The visions of chapter 7 and the resurrection statement of chapter 12 shaped later Jewish and Christian expectations about the end times, the Messiah, and the final judgment.
Date and Interpretation
Daniel's dating and authorship are among the most debated questions in Old Testament scholarship. Traditional interpretation holds that Daniel himself wrote the book in the sixth century BC, and that the visions are genuine prophecy. Critical scholarship generally dates the book to the second century BC (around 165 BC), during the Maccabean crisis under Antiochus IV Epiphanes, viewing the visions as written after the events they describe. Both positions recognize the book's theological power and its significant influence on later apocalyptic literature, including the Book of Revelation.
Biblical Context
Daniel is placed among the Major Prophets in English Bibles but in the Writings (Ketuvim) in the Hebrew canon. Its themes connect to Ezekiel (a contemporary in exile), Jeremiah (who prophesied the seventy years of exile, Jeremiah 25:11-12), and Revelation (which draws heavily on Daniel's imagery). Jesus quoted Daniel directly, especially the "Son of Man" title (Mark 14:62) and the "abomination of desolation" (Matthew 24:15).
Theological Significance
Daniel establishes that God's sovereignty extends over all nations and all history. It provides the Old Testament's clearest teaching on bodily resurrection (Daniel 12:2) and introduces the heavenly Son of Man figure who receives universal dominion (Daniel 7:13-14), a title and concept central to Jesus' self-understanding. The book models faithful living under hostile political powers, making it deeply relevant to persecuted communities in every era.
Historical Background
The book reflects the period of the Babylonian Empire (626-539 BC) and early Persian rule. Archaeological discoveries have confirmed details such as Belshazzar's co-regency in Babylon and the administrative practices described in the book. The Dead Sea Scrolls contain multiple copies of Daniel, indicating it was widely read and valued in the second and first centuries BC. The Greek additions to Daniel (Susanna, Bel and the Dragon, the Song of the Three Young Men) are found in the Septuagint but not in the Hebrew-Aramaic text.