Dam aris

The name of a woman who, with Dionysius the Areopagite and certain others, is mentioned as having been converted by St. Paul at Athens (Ac 17"). Ramsay (iit. Paul the Trav. p. 252) points out that it is not stated that she was of good birth (in contrast with 17" and 13"); that this arose from the fact that women of social position in Athens would cer- tainly not have tlie opportunity of hearing St.

Paul ; and that her name suggests that she was a foreigner, perhaps ' one of the class of educated Hetairai.' This suggestion seems to go rather beyond the evidence. The name is said to be a corruption of Sitia\i%, a heifer, which is the reading of one Lat. MS (et mulier nomine Damalis, Flor.) Chrys. (ad loc.) suggests quite erroneously that she was the wife of Dionysius ; this could not be the tr. of «al yw^ dyipjirt A. These words and all mention of this woman are omitted by Codex Beza;.

Ramsay {Church in Bom. Emp. p. 161) quotes this in proof of his assertion that the reviser to whom we owe the Western text was a Catholic who objected to the prominent posi- tion assigned to women in the Acts ; ' this was, firstly, pagan rather than Christian ; and, secondly, heretical rather than Catholic' (See also n" and the variation there.) A. C. HSACLAM. DAMASCUS (plrvi!, Aa^crx^O. This city ia the contemporary of all history. Ita origin Is lost io antiquity. Jo«. (Ant. I. vi.

4) ttayu it was founded by 1£, f^randson of Shem. It is Qrst nientinn<-(! in connexion with Abraham's pursuit of the defeated Chi-dorlaomer (On 14^8). Then (<ln l&'-f) his servant is called Daniniesek Kliczer, where both the Chaldee and the Syr. have ' Hliezer the Liamascene.' ItoocuninSSSiaa pv'Cl 0'?t<, Aram Dammesek, which HU^Kests oompftrison with the modem Arabic name, IHmaalik eth-Shdm. As It was the capital of Aram, so it is the chief city of eh-SUAm, the modem Syria. if»A.

A'A<tn»= the left, ».«. the country on the left; as «/.}'#msn, Arabia Felix, is on the ri^'ht of the Arabian looking northward. A Moslem tradition makes Kliezcr the founder of the city, and Abraham king for some Tears before he went south to Palestine. So alBO Nlcolaus of P.. quoted by Jos. (Ant. 1. vii. 2). He mentions a villajre called ' the Habitation of Abraham,' which may be identical with tlBurzth, 3 miles N. of the city, where there is a well/ sacred to the patriarch. I. History.

— The history of D. really begins for us with its capture by 1 lavid. Coming to suc- cour Hailadci^cr, king of Zobah, the Daniascenes were themselves overthrown. David smote of the Syrians 22,'MXJ men, took and garrisoned the city, and ' the Syrians became servants to David, and brought presents' (2 S 8'"'). Nicolausof Diiniascus says the battle was fought on the Kuphrates.

Rezon, son of Eliada, a follower of Hadadczer, escaped, gathered a company around him, possibly fugitives like himself, and obtained possession of Damascus. ' He was an adversary to Israel all the days of Solomon.' His experience on the Euphrates possibly led him to abhor Israel (1 K ll»-'»). Hut aoon again the sceptre passed to the family of VOL. I.— I"; Hadad. Syria and Israel were in league against Judah.

Hard pressed by the king of Israel, Asa bought the friendship of Benhadad with cosily presents, and induced him to break with liaasha and invade his territory. A successful raid into the northern dominions of Lsrael called off liaasha and relieved Judah (1 K 15'°"-'). Benhadad seems to have followed up his advantage in the reign of Omri. Retaining the captured cities, he held the right to 'make streets' in the new capital, Samaria (1 K 20*").

'Streets' may have meant quarters for a permanent embassy, or siiiiplj accommodation for Syrian merchants, who, like the Tyrians in Memphis, would congregate in one quarter. It was a concesbion to a power which could enforce it if necessary. Benhadad, son of this monarch, led a great expedition against Samaria. There were with him lliirty-two subject kings, with horses and chariots.

Conducting the siege with a contemptuous carelessness, born of a sense of absolute superiority, he was surprised by a sudden attack, and his army routed, he himself escaping with difficulty on horseback. Meeting Israel again at Aphek, he was defeated and his army destroyed. Taken by Ahab, his freedom was granted on most humiliating terms (1 K 20). In about three years' time we find them again at war, fighting for possession of Ramothgilead ; and there Ahab was slain (1 K 22). From D.

came Naaman, to be healed of leprosy (2 K 5). Again the Syrians invaded Israel, and a company sent to arrest Elisha at Dothan was led by him, blinded, into Samaria (2 K li"-'^). Unaffected by their chivalrous treatment, we find Benhadad directly again besieging Samaria. The city was reduced to the most appalling straits by famine, when, by a miraculous uisconititure of the Syrians, it was delivered, and plentiful supplies provided (2 K 6^- 7*").

From the cimeiforin inscriptions we learn that the Assyrians also harassed Benhadad, and were too strong for him and his allies. His reputation Buffered heavily from these disasters, making it easier for a strong man to usurp his place. Falling sick, he sent a messenger laden with gifts to con- sult Elisha. To this man, Hazael, the prophet promised the kingdom. On his return he secured the swift fullilment of the promise by the murder of his master (2 K 8'°).

In his encounters with the great Assyr. power, the new king was not more fortunate than his predecessor ; out elsewhere success waited upon liis standards. Jehoram of Israel and Ahaziah of Judah attacked Ramoth- gilead. Hazael repulsed them, the former being seriously wounded (2 K 8^^). He then laid waste the whole country east of the Jordan (2 K 10»^"). He captured Gath {ib. 12"), and threat- ened Jerusalem.

Jehoash purchased immunity from attack, stripping the temple and the palace of all valuables for this purpose (ti. 12"). Hazael also prevailed against Israel, and superiority was maintained by his son Benhadad {ib. Vi"). Ulti- mately Jehoash, son of Jehuahaz, a.<>serted liis independence, and recovered the cities Hazael had taken (ti. IS*'). Jeroboam II.

, son of Jehoash, the great warrior-king of the northern monarc) extended the borders of Israel, recovering and Hamath, probably making their kings tribu- tary to Israel {ib. 14 •). D. and Samaria next appear in league against Jerusalem (2 K 1.5" Ki"). Rezin of D. reconquered Elath, driving out ' the Jews.' Meantime the As.syrians, under Tiglath- pileser III., whose Bab. name was Pul or I'ulu (2 K 15"), were rapi<lly extending their sway, threatening the independence of D. and Samaria alike.

To consolidate their power against As.syria, Kezin and Pekali sought to attach Judali to iheir cause by dethroning Aheiz, and setting up ' a king in the midst of it, the son of Tabeel ' (Is 7") The ictiy. 546 DAMASCUS DAMASCUS attempt not only failed : it hastened the disaster they wished to avert. Ahaz appealed to Tiglath- pileser, who at once ' went up against D. and took it, and carried the people of it captive to Kir,' Rezin himself bein" slain (2 K 16*) ; and Assyr.

colonists were placed in it (Jos.^nt. IX. xii. 3). This was the heaviest blow the city had yet re- ceived, and for a time she seems to have been crushed by it. To this period probably refer the prophecies of Isaiah and Amos, ' The riches of D. . shall be carried away before the king of Assyria' (Is 8''), ' Behold, D. is taken away from being a city, and it shall be a ruinous heap ' (Is 17'), ' I will send a fire into the house of Hazael, and it shall devour the palaces of Benhadad . .

and the people of Syria shall go into captivity to Kir, saith the Lord ' (Am !*• ' ; see also Jer 49-"'"). Ahaz came to D. to do homage to Tiglath- pileser. Here he saw the great altar, of which, at his order, a duplicate waa made by Urijah the priest, and put in the temple to supplant the brazen altar (2 K 16'°""). For the important issues of this act see W. R. Smith, OTJ&- 265, 443, RS 359, 466 ff. A city occupying the position of D. could not be permanently ovem'helmed.

During the Persian period she displayed afresh her perennial vigour, playing a distinguished part (Strabo, xvi. 2. 9). When Darius advanced against Alexander at Issus, he sent his harem and treasures to D. for safety. After his defeat and in'dorious flight, the city was treacherously surrendered to Alex- ander's general, Parnienio (Arrian, Exped. Al. ii. 11). During the Greek occupation D. yielded to Antioch on the Orontes the rank of first city in Syria. In the course of the wars with Egypt, D.

, with Palestine and Ccelesyria, fell at times into the hands of the Ptolemies. On the division of Syria (B.C. Ill) between Antiochus Grypus and Antiochus Cj-zicenus, D. fell to the latter. Against this prince Hyrcanus made a successful stand (Jos. Ant. xill. x. 1-3). The next king was Demetrius Eucserus, who, assisted by Ptolemy Lathyrus, establislied himself in D., and divided the rule of Syria with liis brother Philip {Ant. XIII. xiii. 4).

Invited by discontented Jews, he marched against Alexander Jannieus, and defeated that prince near Sheclieiu, returning immediately to war with Philip. The latter, assisted by Arabs and Parthians, was victorious. Demetrius was sent to Mithridates, king of Parthia, and remained with him till his death. A younger brother, Antiochus Dionysus, now seized the throne of Damascus. He fell in an encounter witli Aretas, king of Arabia; and this monarch, invited by the inhabitants, entered D.

and assumed the reins of government. Against Ptolemy Menuipus, ' who waa such a bad neiglibour to the city,' Alexandra, widow of Janmeus, sent an expedition to D., under her son Aristobulus, which achieved nothing {Ant. XIII. xvi. 3). Tigranes, king of Armenia, obtained temporary possession. The Romans under Metelhis took the city, and here, B.C.

64, Pompey received ambassadors from the neighbour- in" kings, who brought him presents ; among others, a golden vine from Aristobulus, valued at 500 talents. In B.C. 63 the whole of Syria became a Roman province ; and, while the proconsul usually resided in Antioch, D. began to assume her old ascendency. Herod, while still a young man, escaping judgment from the Sanhedrin, came here to visit Sextus Cassar, and was made by him general of the army of Ccelesyria {Ant. XIV. ix. 5).

Later, according to Jos. {JIJ I. xxi. 11), he showed his magnanimity by adorning many cities, not only within but also beyond his own dominions. To D. he added the attractions of a gymnasium and a theatre. It was on the way to D. that the miraculous event occurred through which Saul of Tarsus was converted to Christianity ; and in this city he first testified for Christ (Ac 9-").

It was then under the Arabian Aretas, and governed by an ethnarch, whose vigilance Paul escaped, being let down over the wall in a basket (2 Co IP^). Hither the apostle returned, after his sojourn in Arabia (Gal 1"). It was reckoned to the Decapolia (Pliny, HN v. 16). Josephus curiously remarks that Scythopolis was the greatest of these citie« After Herod's time he says little of D.

; but there must have been a strong Jewish colony there : at one time some 10,000 of these were slain by the populace {BJ II. xx. 2). Under Trajan, D. attained the rank of a Roman provincial city. Since that time, although she has often changed hands, her career of prosperity has hardly been interrupted, save perhaps when she fell before the ferocious Tamerlane (1399). D. is still the chief city in Syria, with a population of not less than 150,000.

Christians have always been fairly numerous in the city. Theodosius transformed the great temple into a Christian church. On the advent of Islam it was changed into a Moslem mosque. D. was originally subordinate to Antioch, which was the seat of the patriarch ; but this official, still taking his title from Antioch, now resides in Damascus. The darkest blot on the history of the city is the massacre of some 6000 Christians in the summer of 1860. ii. Geography.

— One of the most beautiful and fertile plains in the world is that which lies to the east of the Anti-Lebanon range, at an elevation of about 2200 ft. above sea-level. Great Hermon, Jebel esh-Sheikh, a vast snowy bank filling all the horizon, forms the western boundary. A chain of hills, thrown off to eastward from Anti-Libanus, runs along the northern edge. Jebel el-Aswad and Jebel Mdni' shut it in on the south.

Three marshy lakes mark the eastern frontier of fertility ; and away beyond them rises a range of low hills, which definitely cuts off this district from the sandy wastes of the Arabian desert. These sur- rounding hills, all bare and forbidding, save in the deeper and shadier wadies, enclose within their rocky arms a broad expanse of rich wa\'ing green.

This plain owes its fertility almost entirely to the river el-Barada, 'the cool,' which bursts through the limestone ramparts on the north, to fling itself in many a refreshing stream over its surface ; and to the waters of el-A'waj, 'the crooked,' which, comin"; down from the eastern slopes of Gt. Her- mon, flows through the southern meadows.

Some- thing is also due to the protection of the desert hills in the east, which in a measure bar the way against the drifting sand-storms from the wilder- ness. In the plain the natives distinguish five districts. The western portion, extending about two hours east of the gorge of the Barada, is di\'ided by that river into the northern and southern Ghautah.

To the east is the Merj, also divided by the Barada into north and south ; while all lyinji between these districts and Jebel el-Asicad and the valley of el-A'icaJ, is known as Wady el'Ajam. Scattered over this tract are some 140 villages. A population of about 50,000 are engaged almost ex- clusively in agricultural pursuits. Clumps of olives, and many varieties of fruit trees pleasantly diversify the landscape, while between them, iu season, far and wide, wave seas of golden grain.

On the edge of the plain, east of et-Barnda, just under Jebel Ka.nun, which rises some 1700 ft., lie the famous orchards, some 30 miles in circum- ference, which encircle with luxuriant foliage the ancient city of Damascus. From afar are seen the white roofs, domes, and minarets, in striking relief against the green.

The scene of rich beauty here DAMASCUS DAMASCUS 547 presented, with the shade of fruitful trees, and on every hand the music of running water, has ever lnB(>ired the Arab with admiration ; and when he dr-^amed of Paradise — 'the garden' mr excellence — his imagery was drawn from the gardens and streams of Damascus. Nor need we wonder if, coming from the dreary monotony of the burning desert, the Bedawi, fascinated by its delights, thinks himself in the midst of an earthly Paradise.

Even for the eye accustomed to the fresh beauty and fruitfulness of the West, it possesses many a charm, although the descriptive language of the Arab may appear somewhat exaggerated. There are few places where so rich a variety of fruits is brought to maturity within a similar area. In the vicinity of the city are large vegetable gardens ; and in the fields beyond diflerent kinds of grain, tobacco, cotton, tia.x, hemp, madder, roots, and vicinus are grown.

The olive is plentiful, and much of the oil used in the city is made in the neighbourhood. Tall, graceful poplars line the baincs of the streams, yielding excellent timber for building purposes. Firewooa is mostly made of the olive and the apricot. There are also the cypress, the plane tree, and the stately palm. But the charm of D. is felt chiefly in her ^rdens, and under the shadow of her far-stretch- mg thickets of fruit trees.

There, in generous rivalry, are found the orange, the lemon, and the citron ; the apple, the pear, and the quince ; plums and prunes, grapes and figs, pomegranate and mulberry, almonds and walnuts, hazel-nuts and pistachios. D. is situated about 60 miles from the coast. Its exact position is 33° 30' N. lat., 36° 18' E. long.

It is now most easily approached by the magnifi- cent P'rench diligence road from Beirflt, which scales Mount Lebanon, crosses el-Bcka, and then follows the easy passes through Anti-Lebanon to the plain of Damascus. The routes by which of old she communicated with the sealxjaru varied with political conditions. The way to Tripoli lay past Baalbek and Bosherreh. That to Beirflt followed closely the line of the present road ; while the great height of the two Lebanons lay also between D.

and Tyre and Sidon. When the way was clear, she found the most convenient outlet at Acre. This road led to the south-west past Sa'sa' and Kuneiterah over the Jediir uplands, crossed the Jordan below lake H&Uh by Jisr Bendt Yn'kub, traversed the rolling downs of the upper Jordan valley, and splitting towards the west, one arm took the difficult but direct route by way of Snfcd ; the other swept southward past KhAn Jubb Yusif to the plain of Gennesarct at KhAn Minyeh, and, following an ca.

sy line by the wadies to the north- west, joined the Sn/ed road at Er-RAmeh. From Gennesaret a branch of this hijihway ascended the uplands west of the Sea of Galilee to KhAn et- TujjAr, and, passing round the base of Tabor, crossed the plain of Esdraelon to Mcgiddo, and thence to the Philistine plain and Kgj-pt. Another branch kept the valley along the shore of the lake, and southward past Bethshan to Jericho. This was cros.ied by a road, which, leaving D.

in a more southerlj' direction, traversed the level reaches of the HnurAn, came down into the valley from the Jau/dn highlands ea.'

^t of the sea, by way of Aphck, and here dividing, one limb crossed the Jordan below the lake, climbed the hills to west- ward, and reached Acre by way of Kcfr Kennah ; the other passed up the vale of Jezreel, and again bifurcating, one branch went straight to the sea over Esdraelon : the other, bending to the south- west, is identified with the ancient caravan road from Gilead, which iia.'<ses by Dotlian, and comes down upon the plain of Sharon.

The old gold and frankincense caravan road from Arabia the Happy has frequently changed its course in the northern reaches. The traffic has long been confined to the passing of the Haf, the Moslem pilgrimage to and from LlHaramein, El-Medinah, and Mecca. The great road from Aleppo in the north is split as with a wedge at Emcsa by the Anti-Lebanon ridge.

It throws an arm round either side of the moun- tain, that on the west traversing the valley of Cadesyria by way of Ba'albck, and unites again at Damascus. Eastward lay the highways across the desert to Palmyra and Baghdad. Thus the great avenues of communication between north and south, east and west, along which flowed the com- merce and marche<i the armies of the ancient world, lay through the heart of the city.

Resting in the midst of a beautiful oasis on the edge of the changeless desert, surrounded by desert hills, she formed the natural harbour whither steered the argosies from the sea of sand, bearing the treasures of the East • whence again the sombre mariners set forth upon their dreary voyage homeward. Herein we have the secret of her perennial greatness. A strong position she never was, and often has she bowed beneath the stroke of the conqueror, be- coming 'a servant to task work.'

But, ever as the tides of war rolled back, she has arisen again, fresh and vigorous as of yore. She has been the meeting place and mart of the nations ; and as she has been of use to all, to the desert nomad and to the more civilized and settled peoples alike, so the necessities of all have conspired to perpetuate her prosperity. iii. Trade. — It seems probable that the chief source of income to the people of D. would be the constantly passing caravans.

But that they also traded on their own account is shown in EzK 27'*, the ' handy works ' of Tyre beinfr exchanged for ' the wine of Helbon and white wool.' Hatbun, a Wllage about 12 miles north of D., is still famous for its vine produce ; and the mountain shepherds of Anti-Lebanon would always have a B\ipply of white wool for the 1). merchants. From Am 3'" (RV) we may gather that the citj' was already known for silken manufactures.

Our word ' Damask ' is derived from a product of the looms of Damascus. At a later time her armourers also achieved wide fame, and the ' Damascus blade' was highly prized. They were carried off en masse by Tamerlane, and settled in Samarkand. iv. AntiQUITIKS. — The main stream of El-Bar- ada, the true creator of the city, enters from the N.W.

, and, passing under the great square, part escapes to water the gardens on the north, while the rest is carried off through multitudinous conduits to supply the houses of the inhabitants. The distribution of the water has always been a matter requiring the exercise of both care and tact among these excitable people : so it has come to be a common savin;;, that 'every drop of the water of KlBarada lias to run according to law.' The ancient city was built on the southern bank of the stream.

Much more grounil is now covered to the north, and especially to the S. and S.W., while the long limb of ElMcdi'in, ter- minating in the 'Gate of {joA,' Bnxmvabet Ullah, whence issue the pilgrims for Mecca, stretches far to the S. The old walls may he traced, how- ever, along the edge of the stream, and through tlie centre of the modern city, in circumference about 4 miles. For a city of such extraordinary age, D. is not rich in antiquities.

The castle, a rect- angular building of great extent, standing at the N.W. corner of the old wall, probably dates only from the Middle Ages, although the substructures are ancient. To the S. of the eiuitcrn gate iiart of the wall is very old. The gate itself dates from Koiiian times ; ami the lino of the Vin Hcctn, ' the street called straight,' may be traced from this to the western gate.

It is still called Derb ei-Uus 548 DAMN, DAMNABLE, DAMNATION DAN takim, straight street, by the natives {Derb es. ^uMrqi, ' thu kind's hijjhway,' is the name given to every inijioilaiit road, in tlie country). This is the straight street common to all Syro-Greek and Syro- Roman cities, of which line examples are still to be seen at Bosrah and Shuhbah. The great mosque possibly occupies the site of the temple of liimmon (2 K 5'*).

It is in accordance with the conservatism of the Orient, that the spot has preserved its religious character under the dominion of successive faiths. It was a spacious Greek temple, then a Christian church, and finally it became a Moslem mosque ; the only remaining evidence of Christian use being the Greek inscrip- tion over the southern gateway, ' Thy kingdom, O Christ, is an everlasting kingdom, and Thy dom- inion endureth for all generations.'

The Moslems say that the head of John the Baptist was buried here ; but Christian tradition has it that the church was dedicated to John Damascenus, whose tomb was within it ; and there his body was mir- aculously retained, when an effort was made to remove it. Of this mosque, which for centuries had been the pride of the Moslem world, a large part was destroyed by fire in October 1893. The traditions associating certain spots with Abraham, Naaman, and Elisha are of the most shadowy character.

Hardly more reliable are those relating to the experiences of St. Paul. A spot about half a mile E. of the city is shown as the scene of his conversion. It is now the Christian burying-ground. But tradition has several times contradicted itself as to the scene of this miracle : in any case it could not be here, as the traveller from the S. would not enter the city from the E. Between this and the gate is the grave of St. George, the kindly porter who connived at St.

Paul's escape, and suffered martyrdom. The spot where the apostle was let down over the wall in a basket, ' the house of Judas ' in Straight street, and also the house of Ananias, are pomted out ; but considerable uncertainty attaches to them all. W. EwiNG.