Interpretation
The Bible's Own Principles of Interpretation
Scripture itself provides foundational guidance for its own interpretation. The most basic principle is that the Bible must be read carefully and seriously as God's communication to humanity. Moses commanded Israel, "You shall not add to the word that I command you, nor take from it" (Deuteronomy 4:2). Nehemiah records that when Ezra read the law publicly, the Levites "gave the sense, so that the people understood the reading" (Nehemiah 8:8), suggesting that interpretation was needed from the very beginning to bridge gaps of language and context.
Jesus demonstrated interpretation by explaining how the Old Testament pointed to Himself. On the road to Emmaus, "beginning with Moses and all the Prophets, he interpreted to them in all the Scriptures the things concerning himself" (Luke 24:27). He taught that the law and prophets found their fulfillment in Him (Matthew 5:17), establishing the principle that the Old Testament must be read in light of its completion in Christ. At the same time, Jesus criticized those who used Scripture to serve their own agendas, telling the Pharisees, "You search the Scriptures because you think that in them you have eternal life; and it is they that bear witness about me" (John 5:39).
Peter acknowledged that some Scripture is difficult: "There are some things in them that are hard to understand, which the ignorant and unstable twist to their own destruction" (2 Peter 3:16). Paul instructed Timothy to be a worker "who has no need to be ashamed, rightly handling the word of truth" (2 Timothy 2:15), using a phrase that literally means "cutting straight," implying careful, accurate treatment of the text.
Major Approaches Through History
The history of biblical interpretation reflects a long conversation about how best to read Scripture. In the early church, two major schools emerged. The Antiochene school, associated with figures like John Chrysostom and Theodore of Mopsuestia, emphasized the literal and historical sense of the text. The Alexandrian school, led by Clement and Origen, favored allegorical interpretation, seeking spiritual meanings beneath the surface of the narrative. Origen proposed that Scripture had three senses: literal, moral, and spiritual, corresponding to body, soul, and spirit.
The medieval church developed this into the fourfold sense of Scripture: literal (what happened), allegorical (what to believe), moral (what to do), and anagogical (what to hope for). While this approach produced rich devotional reading, it also opened the door to interpretations untethered from the author's original intent.
The Protestant Reformation brought a decisive shift. Martin Luther insisted on the clarity of Scripture and its sufficiency apart from church tradition. John Calvin emphasized careful grammatical and historical study, producing commentaries that remain influential. The Reformers championed the principle that Scripture interprets Scripture, meaning that clearer passages should illuminate more obscure ones.
The Literal-Historical Method
The most widely practiced approach to biblical interpretation seeks to understand what the original authors meant in their original contexts. This method asks several fundamental questions: What do the words mean in their original language? What was the historical situation of the author and the audience? What literary genre is being used, whether narrative, poetry, prophecy, parable, or epistle? How does the passage fit within the structure of the book and the broader biblical narrative?
This approach recognizes that the Bible contains diverse literary forms, each requiring appropriate reading strategies. A psalm of lament should not be read the same way as a legal code. A parable communicates through story, not through point-by-point allegory. Apocalyptic literature, like Daniel and Revelation, uses symbolic imagery that requires understanding its conventions. Paul's statement that "all Scripture is breathed out by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness" (2 Timothy 3:16) affirms both the divine origin and the practical usefulness of every part of the Bible, but the method of deriving that profit varies by genre.
Interpretation in the New Testament's Use of the Old
One of the most fascinating aspects of biblical interpretation is how the New Testament writers used the Old Testament. They employed several distinct methods. Direct prophecy-fulfillment identified specific predictions and their completion, as when Matthew quotes Isaiah 7:14 in connection with the virgin birth (Matthew 1:22-23). Typological interpretation recognized patterns in God's activity, where earlier events, persons, or institutions foreshadowed later ones. Paul identified Adam as "a type of the one who was to come" (Romans 5:14), and the author of Hebrews extensively compared the Levitical priesthood and sacrificial system to the work of Christ (Hebrews 8-10).
The apostles also used the Old Testament to establish ethical principles, drawing on the law's commands to teach Christian behavior (Romans 13:8-10; 1 Corinthians 9:9-10). Jesus Himself summarized the entire law in the double command to love God and love neighbor (Matthew 22:37-40), demonstrating that interpretation must always seek the heart of God's purposes.
The Role of the Holy Spirit
The Bible presents interpretation as not merely an intellectual exercise but a spiritual one. Paul writes that "the natural person does not accept the things of the Spirit of God, for they are folly to him, and he is not able to understand them because they are spiritually discerned" (1 Corinthians 2:14). Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would "guide you into all the truth" (John 16:13). The Spirit who inspired the Scriptures also illuminates them for readers who approach with faith and humility.
This does not mean that careful study is unnecessary. Rather, the best interpretation combines rigorous attention to the text with dependence on the Spirit who gives understanding. The psalmist prayed, "Open my eyes, that I may behold wondrous things out of your law" (Psalm 119:18), a prayer that acknowledges both the richness of Scripture and the reader's need for divine help to perceive it.
Practical Guidelines for Bible Readers
Several time-tested principles guide faithful interpretation. Read each passage in its context, both the immediate literary context and the broader biblical narrative. Let Scripture interpret Scripture, using clearer passages to illuminate difficult ones. Distinguish between what the Bible describes and what it prescribes. Pay attention to genre and literary form. Consider the original audience and their circumstances. Look for the passage's connection to the central message of salvation through Christ. And approach the text with humility, recognizing that the goal of interpretation is not to master the Bible but to be mastered by its truth.
Biblical Context
Interpretation is addressed throughout Scripture. Key passages include Nehemiah 8:8 (Ezra's public reading), Luke 24:27 (Jesus interpreting Scripture), John 5:39 (Scripture bearing witness to Christ), Acts 8:30-35 (Philip interpreting Isaiah for the Ethiopian), 2 Timothy 2:15 (rightly handling the word of truth), 2 Timothy 3:16 (all Scripture is God-breathed), 2 Peter 1:20-21 (the origin of prophecy), and 2 Peter 3:16 (difficulty of some Scripture).
Theological Significance
Biblical interpretation matters because the Bible is the primary means by which God communicates His will and character to humanity. Correct interpretation leads to sound doctrine, faithful living, and genuine knowledge of God. Faulty interpretation has led to heresy, division, and harm throughout church history. The Bible's own emphasis on careful, Spirit-guided reading underscores that God desires to be known and understood, and that the path to knowing Him runs through patient, humble engagement with His written word.
Historical Background
The history of biblical interpretation stretches from the post-exilic Jewish community, through the rabbinic traditions of the Second Temple period, the Qumran community's pesher method, the early church fathers, medieval scholasticism, the Reformation, and into modern critical and evangelical scholarship. The Dead Sea Scrolls reveal that the Qumran community interpreted prophetic texts as applying directly to their own situation. Rabbinic interpretation developed complex systems of rules, including the seven rules of Hillel and the thirteen rules of Rabbi Ishmael. The invention of the printing press in the fifteenth century transformed access to Scripture and catalyzed the Reformation's emphasis on individual Bible reading.