Literature, Sub-apostolic, 2
Introduction to Sub-Apostolic Literature
The period immediately following the deaths of the original apostles (approximately AD 70-150) represents a critical bridge in Christian history. Often called the "sub-apostolic" or "post-apostolic" era, this time saw the first generation of Christian leaders who had not personally walked with Jesus during his earthly ministry but who learned from those who had. Their writings, while not considered inspired Scripture like the New Testament books (2 Timothy 3:16), provide invaluable historical testimony about how the earliest churches understood, preserved, and applied the apostolic teachings. These documents help us trace the development of Christian thought, liturgy, and church structure in the crucial decades when Christianity was establishing its identity separate from Judaism and facing both internal challenges and external persecution.
Papias of Hierapolis: The Man and His Work
Papias served as bishop of Hierapolis in Phrygia (modern-day Turkey) during the first half of the second century. According to Irenaeus, his younger contemporary, Papias was "a disciple of John and friend of Polycarp"—placing him in direct contact with the apostolic generation. The Chronicon Paschale, a seventh-century document incorporating earlier materials, suggests he was martyred around the same time as Polycarp (AD 155-156). Papias's major work, titled Exposition of the Lord's Sayings (or Exposition of the Oracles of the Lord), was a five-volume collection that survived until at least the thirteenth century but now exists only in fragments quoted by later church historians like Irenaeus and Eusebius.
Eusebius of Caesarea, the fourth-century church historian, offers a somewhat contradictory assessment of Papias, calling him both "a man of little judgment" yet "most learned and well acquainted with the Scriptures" (Historia Ecclesiastica III, 39). This mixed evaluation likely reflects theological differences between Eusebius's more allegorical approach and Papias's literal, millenarian expectations about Christ's thousand-year reign (Revelation 20:1-6). Despite Eusebius's reservations, Papias's work represents one of our earliest attempts to systematically collect and interpret Jesus's teachings outside the canonical Gospels.
Papias's Method: Collecting Oral Tradition
In the preface to his work, preserved by Eusebius, Papias explains his methodology: "I shall not hesitate to append to my interpretations whatsoever I learned carefully from the elders and treasured up in my memory.... For I did not think that what was to be gotten from books would profit me as much as what came from the living and abiding voice." This statement reveals Papias's preference for oral tradition over written documents—a preference characteristic of an era when many Christian communities still relied heavily on spoken transmission of teachings.
Papias specifically mentions seeking out information about "what Andrew or Peter said, or what Philip or Thomas, or James, or what John or Matthew, or any other of the Lord's disciples said, as well as regarding what Aristion, and the presbyter John, the disciple of the Lord, have to say." This passage has generated significant scholarly debate. Some, following Eusebius, argue Papias refers to two distinct Johns: John the apostle and John the presbyter (elder). Others maintain he refers to the same John in two different capacities: first as an apostle whose teachings Papias received indirectly through elders, and second as a living teacher with whom Papias communicated directly. This question bears on our understanding of Johannine authorship and the development of the New Testament canon.
Papias's Testimony About the Gospels
Papias's fragments contain some of the earliest external testimony about the origins of the New Testament Gospels. Regarding the Gospel of Mark, Papias records the testimony of "the elder" (likely John): "Mark, having become Peter's interpreter, wrote down accurately everything he remembered, though not in order, of the things either said or done by Christ. For he neither heard the Lord nor followed him, but afterward, as I said, followed Peter, who adapted his teaching to the needs of his hearers." This aligns with the traditional connection between Mark and Peter (1 Peter 5:13) and explains the Gospel's vivid, eyewitness quality despite its occasional chronological disorganization.
Concerning the Gospel of Matthew, Papias states: "Matthew compiled the sayings in the Hebrew language, and each interpreted them as best he could." This has been understood variously—as referring to a collection of Jesus's sayings (possibly like the hypothetical Q source), as describing the canonical Gospel of Matthew, or as testimony to a Semitic original behind the Greek Gospel. While modern scholarship questions whether our canonical Matthew is a direct translation from Hebrew or Aramaic, Papias's testimony confirms the early church's association of this Gospel with the apostle Matthew (Matthew 9:9).
Papias makes no explicit mention of the Gospels of Luke or John, though his reference to "the presbyter John" may relate to Johannine tradition. His silence about Luke is particularly noteworthy, possibly indicating that Luke's Gospel (and Acts) had not yet achieved widespread circulation or recognition in Papias's circles, or that Papias prioritized traditions connected directly to apostles over those from Paul's companion (Colossians 4:14).
Theological Content and Millenarianism
The theological fragments from Papias reveal a strongly literal and millenarian expectation. According to Irenaeus, Papias taught about a future thousand-year reign of Christ on earth characterized by extraordinary material abundance: "The days will come in which vines shall grow, each having ten thousand branches, and in each branch ten thousand twigs, and in each twig ten thousand shoots, and in each shoot ten thousand clusters, and on every cluster ten thousand grapes, and each grape when pressed will give five and twenty measures of wine." While this vivid imagery may employ hyperbolic symbolism, it reflects a literal interpretation of Old Testament prophecies about messianic abundance (Isaiah 11:6-9, Amos 9:13-15) and New Testament apocalyptic passages (Revelation 20:1-6).
This millenarianism (or chiliasm) was widespread in early Jewish-Christian circles but became increasingly controversial as Christianity spread in the Gentile world. Papias's eschatology likely drew from Jewish apocalyptic traditions and a literal reading of biblical promises, contrasting with the more spiritualized interpretations that would later dominate much of Christian theology. His emphasis on physical resurrection and earthly restoration reflects the holistic biblical view of salvation that encompasses both spiritual and material creation (Romans 8:19-23).
The Story of the Adulterous Woman
Eusebius records that Papias related "a story about a woman accused of many sins before the Lord, which is also contained in the Gospel according to the Hebrews." Most scholars identify this with the account of the woman caught in adultery found in later manuscripts of John's Gospel (John 7:53-8:11). While this passage is absent from the earliest Greek manuscripts of John and displays textual characteristics suggesting it may not have been part of the original Gospel, its preservation in the tradition—partly through Papias—testifies to its early circulation and perceived authenticity.
The story's themes of mercy, forgiveness, and Jesus's authority to reinterpret the Law (Leviticus 20:10, Deuteronomy 22:22-24) align with core gospel messages. Papias's preservation of this narrative, whether historical or illustrative, demonstrates how early Christian teachers valued stories that captured the essence of Jesus's character and teaching, even if they weren't yet firmly fixed in the canonical texts.
Historical Significance and Legacy
Papias represents a crucial transitional figure in early Christianity. Standing at the intersection of oral tradition and written Scripture, he consciously sought to preserve fading memories of the apostolic age. His work provides a snapshot of Christian thought in the early second century—still diverse, still intimately connected to Jewish apocalyptic expectations, yet increasingly needing to systematize and defend its teachings.
The eventual loss of Papias's complete work represents one of the great casualties of early Christian literature. Had it survived, we would possess far more detailed information about how the earliest churches understood Jesus's teachings and organized their communities. Nevertheless, the fragments that remain offer priceless insights into the formation of the Gospel tradition and the development of Christian theology in the generation immediately following the apostles.
Papias's methodology—valuing living tradition while beginning to systematize it—anticipates later developments in church history. His concern for accurate transmission of Jesus's words reflects the same impulse that would lead to the careful copying and circulation of New Testament manuscripts and eventually to the formal recognition of the canon. Though his millenarian expectations fell out of favor in much of mainstream Christianity, they represent an important strand of early Christian hope that continues to find expression in various traditions to this day.
Biblical Context
Sub-apostolic literature does not appear directly in Scripture, as it was produced after the New Testament period. However, it frequently references and interprets biblical texts. Papias specifically discusses the Gospels of Matthew and Mark, providing early testimony about their origins and authorship. His millenarian teachings draw heavily from apocalyptic passages like Revelation 20:1-6 and Old Testament prophecies about messianic restoration (Isaiah 11, 65). The story he preserves about the adulterous woman eventually found its way into the textual tradition of John 7:53-8:11.
Theological Significance
Papias's fragments highlight several important theological themes: the value of oral tradition in preserving Jesus's teachings, the early church's literal expectation of Christ's millennial reign, and the holistic nature of salvation encompassing both spiritual and physical restoration. His testimony about Gospel origins supports the historical reliability of the New Testament accounts and demonstrates how early Christians carefully transmitted apostolic teaching. His millenarianism reflects the strong eschatological hope characteristic of early Christianity, rooted in the promise of Christ's return and the renewal of all things (Acts 3:21, Revelation 21:1-5).
Historical Background
Papias wrote during the early second century AD, a period when Christianity was transitioning from a movement led by eyewitnesses to one dependent on written records and second-generation leadership. The church faced internal challenges (doctinal diversity, false teachings) and external persecution under Roman authorities. Papias's Phrygian context in Asia Minor placed him in a region with strong Jewish-Christian communities and vibrant apocalyptic expectations. His work reflects the broader cultural shift from oral to written transmission of tradition in the ancient Mediterranean world. Archaeological evidence from Hierapolis confirms Christian presence there by the second century, with later Byzantine churches built over earlier meeting places.