Roman Empire and Christianity, 2
Rome's Approach to Religion
The Roman Empire was remarkably tolerant of religious diversity — with one crucial condition. Rome absorbed deities and cults from conquered peoples throughout its history, incorporating Greek, Egyptian, Persian, and Eastern religions into an ever-expanding pantheon. The state required only that citizens honor the traditional Roman gods and, increasingly, participate in the imperial cult — the worship of the emperor as divine or semi-divine.
This system worked well for polytheistic religions, which could simply add Roman worship to their existing practices. Judaism received a special exemption as a recognized ancient religion, allowed to practice its exclusive monotheism without participating in pagan worship. Christianity, however, fell into an uncomfortable category: it claimed Jewish roots but was increasingly rejected by the Jewish community, leaving it without the legal protections afforded to Judaism.
Why Rome Perceived Christianity as a Threat
Christianity posed unique challenges to the Roman religious and political order. Christians refused to worship the emperor or offer sacrifices to Roman gods, which was seen not merely as religious dissent but as political disloyalty. In a culture where religion and civic duty were inseparable, Christian refusal to participate in public worship was viewed as dangerous to the stability of the state.
Additionally, Christian gatherings aroused suspicion. Their practice of meeting privately, their language of eating the "body and blood" of Christ (1 Corinthians 11:23-26), and their emphasis on mutual love led to rumors of cannibalism and immoral behavior. The exclusive claims of the gospel — "there is salvation in no one else" (Acts 4:12) — and the declaration that "Jesus is Lord" (Romans 10:9; 1 Corinthians 12:3) were understood as direct challenges to the claim that Caesar was lord.
Paul himself experienced this tension. He was accused before Roman magistrates of "acting against the decrees of Caesar, saying that there is another king, Jesus" (Acts 17:7). His Roman citizenship protected him at times (Acts 22:25-29), but it could not ultimately shield him from execution under Nero.
Persecution: From Nero to Diocletian
The first major persecution of Christians under Roman authority came under Emperor Nero in AD 64, who used Christians as scapegoats for the great fire that devastated Rome. The historian Tacitus recorded that Christians were subjected to horrifying deaths — covered in animal skins and torn apart by dogs, crucified, or set ablaze as human torches. Tradition holds that both Peter and Paul were martyred during this persecution.
Subsequent persecutions were inconsistent and often local rather than empire-wide. Under Domitian (AD 81-96), the book of Revelation was written to churches facing pressure to participate in emperor worship (Revelation 2:10, 13; 13:15-17). Pliny the Younger's correspondence with Emperor Trajan (circa AD 112) reveals the uncertainty Roman officials felt about how to handle Christians — Pliny tested suspects by requiring them to offer incense to the emperor's image.
The most severe empire-wide persecution came under Diocletian beginning in AD 303, when churches were destroyed, Scriptures confiscated, and Christians compelled to sacrifice to the gods on pain of death. This "Great Persecution" lasted approximately a decade before Constantine's Edict of Milan in AD 313 granted Christianity legal tolerance.
How Rome Unwittingly Served the Gospel
Paradoxically, the very structures of the Roman Empire facilitated the rapid spread of Christianity. The extensive Roman road system allowed missionaries like Paul to travel efficiently across vast distances. The Pax Romana (Roman Peace) made travel relatively safe. The common use of Greek as a lingua franca throughout the eastern Mediterranean meant the gospel could be communicated widely without language barriers.
Paul's missionary strategy explicitly took advantage of Roman infrastructure. He traveled along major roads, targeted provincial capitals and commercial centers (Corinth, Ephesus, Thessalonica), and used his Roman citizenship to access legal protections and appeal to higher courts (Acts 25:10-12). The apostolic church spread along the routes of Roman commerce, reaching Rome itself — the capital of the known world — within a generation of Jesus' resurrection (Romans 1:7; Acts 28:14-31).
The Roman legal system also, despite its persecutions, sometimes worked in Christianity's favor. When Paul was brought before the proconsul Gallio in Corinth, Gallio dismissed the case as an internal Jewish dispute (Acts 18:12-17), effectively establishing a precedent that Christianity was not a criminal matter.
From Persecution to State Religion
The conversion of Emperor Constantine in AD 312 transformed Christianity's relationship with Rome. The Edict of Milan (AD 313) granted religious freedom throughout the empire, and Constantine increasingly favored Christianity, funding church construction, convening the Council of Nicaea (AD 325), and integrating Christian values into imperial law.
By AD 380, Emperor Theodosius declared Christianity the official state religion of the Roman Empire, and pagan worship was progressively restricted. This dramatic reversal — from persecuted sect to imperial faith in less than three centuries — fulfilled, in the eyes of early Christians, the prophetic vision that the gospel would reach "the ends of the earth" (Acts 1:8) and that the kingdoms of this world would acknowledge Christ's lordship (Revelation 11:15).
The transformation also raised new questions that the church continues to grapple with: the relationship between spiritual authority and political power, the dangers of institutional religion, and whether the church is best served by imperial patronage or by the purity that persecution can foster.
Biblical Context
The New Testament was written entirely within the context of the Roman Empire. Luke's Gospel situates Jesus' birth in the context of Caesar Augustus's census (Luke 2:1). Jesus was executed by Roman crucifixion under Pontius Pilate (Matthew 27:24-26). The book of Acts traces the gospel's spread from Jerusalem to Rome along Roman roads and through Roman provinces. Paul's epistles address churches in Roman cities (Rome, Corinth, Ephesus, Philippi, Colossae, Thessalonica). The book of Revelation uses symbolic language to critique Roman imperial power and its demand for worship (Revelation 13; 17-18).
Theological Significance
The relationship between Rome and Christianity illustrates several key theological themes: God's sovereignty over human empires (Daniel 2:21; Romans 13:1), the paradox that persecution often strengthens rather than destroys the church (Acts 8:1-4), and the tension between the kingdom of God and the kingdoms of this world (John 18:36). The early Christians' willingness to die rather than worship Caesar demonstrates the absolute lordship of Christ. Paul's nuanced counsel to 'be subject to the governing authorities' (Romans 13:1-7) while maintaining ultimate allegiance to Christ established an enduring framework for Christian political engagement.
Historical Background
Roman historians Tacitus, Suetonius, and Pliny the Younger all reference early Christians and their interactions with Roman authority. Tacitus describes Nero's persecution (Annals 15.44). Pliny's correspondence with Trajan (Letters 10.96-97) provides the earliest detailed Roman account of Christian worship practices. Archaeological evidence including the graffiti of the Alexamenos inscription (circa second century, mocking a Christian worshiping a crucified figure with a donkey's head) and the catacombs of Rome reveal the social context of early Christian life under Roman rule. The Arch of Titus in Rome commemorates the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70, an event that had profound implications for Jewish-Christian relations within the empire.