Stranger and Sojourner (in the Old Testament)
Categories of Foreigners in Israel
The Old Testament uses several distinct Hebrew terms for people who were not native Israelites, each carrying different legal and social implications. The most important is the ger, typically translated "sojourner" or "resident alien," referring to a foreigner who had settled permanently among the Israelites. The ger had left their homeland and placed themselves under the protection and legal system of Israel. A second term, toshabh, overlaps with ger and refers to a temporary resident or hired worker. The nokhri or ben nekhar, translated "foreigner," designated someone who was merely passing through or who maintained primary allegiance to another nation. Finally, zar, often translated "stranger," carried connotations of someone who was unauthorized or outside a particular group.
These distinctions mattered because Israel's legal obligations differed for each category. The ger received the most extensive protections, while the nokhri was treated more as a visitor or outsider. Understanding these categories helps readers make sense of passages that seem to treat foreigners differently.
The Foundational Principle: Remember Egypt
The most powerful motivation for Israel's treatment of strangers was their own national memory. "You shall not oppress a sojourner. You know the heart of a sojourner, for you were sojourners in the land of Egypt" (Exodus 23:9). This appeal to shared experience appears repeatedly: "Love the sojourner, therefore, for you were sojourners in the land of Egypt" (Deuteronomy 10:19). God Himself is described as one who "loves the sojourner, giving him food and clothing" (Deuteronomy 10:18).
The foundational legal statement appears in Leviticus 19:33-34: "When a stranger sojourns with you in your land, you shall not do him wrong. You shall treat the stranger who sojourns with you as the native among you, and you shall love him as yourself, for you were strangers in the land of Egypt." This command placed the sojourner under the same ethical principle that governed relations between Israelites: love your neighbor as yourself.
Legal Protections for Sojourners
The laws of Israel extended remarkable protections to resident aliens. In judicial matters, the same standards of justice applied to sojourners as to natives. "You shall not pervert the justice due to the sojourner or to the fatherless" (Deuteronomy 24:17). A curse was pronounced on anyone who perverted justice for foreigners (Deuteronomy 27:19). In criminal law, the same penalties and protections applied to sojourners as to Israelites (Leviticus 24:10-22; Numbers 35:15).
Economic provisions ensured that sojourners could sustain themselves. They were included in the gleaning laws: farmers were to leave the edges of their fields unharvested and not go back for forgotten sheaves, so that sojourners, orphans, and widows could gather food (Leviticus 19:9-10; 23:22; Deuteronomy 24:19-21). Every third year, the special tithe was to be distributed to Levites, sojourners, orphans, and widows (Deuteronomy 14:28-29; 26:12-13). Sojourners were also guaranteed fair wages and timely payment (Deuteronomy 24:14-15).
Participation in Worship and Religious Life
Sojourners were not excluded from Israel's religious life. They were required to observe the Sabbath rest (Exodus 20:10; 23:12), which was presented as a benefit, not a burden. They could participate in the Passover if the males were circumcised (Exodus 12:48-49), and they were included in the celebration of the Feast of Weeks and the Feast of Tabernacles (Deuteronomy 16:11, 14). They were bound by the same laws regarding ritual purity and certain moral prohibitions (Leviticus 17:8-13; 18:26; 20:2).
The inclusion of sojourners in worship was theologically significant. It meant that the God of Israel was not merely a tribal deity but the God who welcomed all who would live under His covenant. The sojourner's participation pointed forward to the prophetic vision of all nations coming to worship the Lord (Isaiah 56:3-8).
The Prophetic Witness
The prophets reinforced and expanded the ethical demand to treat foreigners justly. Jeremiah warned the people of Judah, "Do not oppress the sojourner, the fatherless, or the widow" (Jeremiah 7:6; 22:3). Ezekiel condemned Israel for having "oppressed the sojourner without justice" (Ezekiel 22:7, 29). Zechariah included the sojourner among those whom God's people must not oppress (Zechariah 7:10). Malachi warned that God would judge those who "oppress the hired worker in his wages, the widow and the fatherless, and thrust aside the sojourner" (Malachi 3:5).
These prophetic denunciations show that Israel often failed to live up to its own laws regarding strangers. But the very fact that the prophets could appeal to these standards demonstrates their foundational importance in Israel's moral vision.
Biblical Context
Laws regarding strangers and sojourners appear throughout the Pentateuch, particularly in Exodus 22-23, Leviticus 19 and 24-25, Numbers 15 and 35, and Deuteronomy 10, 14, 16, 24, and 26-27. The prophets Jeremiah (7:6; 22:3), Ezekiel (22:7, 29), Zechariah (7:10), and Malachi (3:5) reinforce these principles. Key narratives involving foreigners include Ruth the Moabite, Rahab the Canaanite, and Uriah the Hittite.
Theological Significance
Israel's treatment of foreigners reveals God's character as a just and compassionate deity who cares for the vulnerable regardless of their ethnic origin. The command to love the sojourner 'as yourself' extends the love commandment beyond ethnic boundaries. These laws established that covenant membership was ultimately about relationship with God, not ethnicity, foreshadowing the New Testament inclusion of Gentiles in the people of God. The principle that Israel's own experience of suffering should generate compassion for others remains a powerful ethical model.
Historical Background
Israel's laws regarding foreigners were unprecedented in the ancient Near East. Most ancient legal codes, including the Code of Hammurabi, provided far fewer protections for non-citizens. The resident alien had virtually no legal standing in most surrounding cultures. Israel's position at a crossroads of trade routes meant that foreigners were a constant presence in the land. Archaeological evidence from Israelite settlements shows the presence of non-Israelite pottery, burial customs, and religious objects, confirming the mixed character of the population described in the biblical texts.