Literature, Sub-apostolic, 1
What Is Sub-Apostolic Literature?
The sub-apostolic period extends from the death of the last apostle (traditionally John, around 100 AD) to the death of Polycarp (155-156 AD). The Christian writings from this era bridge the gap between the New Testament and the later church fathers. While they do not carry the authority of Scripture, they illuminate how the earliest post-apostolic Christians understood and practiced their faith. Some of these works were so highly regarded that they were read alongside Scripture in early church worship and were even included in certain early biblical manuscripts.
These writings are diverse in form: letters, manuals of church practice, apocalyptic visions, theological meditations, and apologetic treatises. What unites them is their proximity to apostolic teaching and their witness to a church navigating questions of authority, doctrine, and identity in a world without the apostles.
The Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians
First Clement, written around 96 AD from the church in Rome to the church in Corinth, is one of the earliest Christian documents outside the New Testament. It was prompted by a crisis: younger members of the Corinthian church had deposed their elders. Clement appeals for order and submission, drawing extensively on Old Testament examples and apostolic teaching.
The letter is significant for several reasons. It quotes or alludes to many New Testament writings, confirming their early circulation and authority. It presents an early theology of ordained ministry, arguing that the apostles appointed bishops and deacons as part of God's ordered plan (1 Clement 42-44). It also contains a remarkable passage on the resurrection, using the phoenix legend as an illustration (1 Clement 25), showing how early Christians engaged their cultural environment.
The Didache
The Didache ("The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles") is a short manual of church practice that may date as early as the late first century, making it contemporary with some New Testament books. Lost for centuries, it was rediscovered in 1883 in a manuscript in Constantinople.
The work opens with a section on "The Two Ways" — the way of life and the way of death — containing ethical instruction echoing Jesus' Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5-7). It then provides instructions on baptism (preferring running water, allowing pouring if necessary), fasting, prayer (including the Lord's Prayer to be said three times daily), and the Eucharist. Remarkably, it gives guidelines for evaluating traveling prophets and apostles, reflecting a period when the church was developing structures to discern genuine from false ministry (Didache 11-13).
The Epistles of Ignatius
Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, wrote seven letters while being transported to Rome for martyrdom around 110-115 AD. His letters burn with passion for Christ and the church. Ignatius is the earliest writer to use the term "catholic church" (Letter to the Smyrnaeans 8:2), meaning the universal church as opposed to local congregations.
Ignatius vigorously defended the reality of Christ's physical incarnation, suffering, and resurrection against docetic teachers who denied Jesus had a real human body. He also strongly advocated for the authority of the bishop as the center of church unity: "Where the bishop is, there let the congregation be" (Smyrnaeans 8:2). His letters provide early evidence for a developing three-fold ministry of bishop, presbyter, and deacon.
Polycarp's Letter and the Shepherd of Hermas
Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna and a disciple of the apostle John, wrote a letter to the Philippians that is saturated with quotations from Paul's epistles and other New Testament writings. Polycarp was martyred around 155-156 AD, and the account of his death (the Martyrdom of Polycarp) is the earliest detailed narrative of a Christian martyrdom outside the New Testament.
The Shepherd of Hermas is a lengthy apocalyptic text from the mid-second century, composed of visions, mandates, and parables. It was widely read and was included in the Codex Sinaiticus alongside the New Testament. The work emphasizes the possibility of repentance after baptism and provides vivid allegorical instruction on Christian living. Though never accepted into the canon, its popularity testifies to the seriousness with which early Christians took the call to holiness.
Why These Writings Matter
Sub-apostolic literature matters because it shows how the faith was received, interpreted, and lived in the generation immediately following the apostles. These writings confirm the early authority of New Testament texts, document the development of church structures and worship practices, and reveal how Christians dealt with heresy, persecution, and the challenge of maintaining unity. They are not Scripture, but they are the earliest commentary on Scripture by those closest to its authors.
Biblical Context
Sub-apostolic writings frequently quote or allude to the Gospels, Paul's epistles, Hebrews, 1 Peter, and other New Testament books. First Clement references 1 Corinthians directly and draws on Hebrews. The Didache echoes Matthew's Sermon on the Mount. Ignatius reflects Johannine and Pauline theology. These citations provide important evidence for the formation and recognition of the New Testament canon.
Theological Significance
These writings demonstrate how earliest Christianity understood apostolic teaching on Christ's nature, church order, baptism, the Eucharist, and eschatology. They show a church grappling with the transition from apostolic to institutional authority, developing structures that would shape Christianity for centuries. Their witness to the real humanity and divinity of Christ, against early heretical challenges, helped establish orthodoxy.
Historical Background
The sub-apostolic period was marked by sporadic persecution under Roman emperors like Domitian and Trajan, the growing separation of Christianity from Judaism, and the emergence of Gnostic and docetic challenges to orthodox faith. The authors of these texts were leaders in major centers of early Christianity: Rome (Clement, Hermas), Antioch (Ignatius), Smyrna (Polycarp), and Hierapolis (Papias). The rediscovery of texts like the Didache in 1883 significantly advanced scholarly understanding of early church practice.