Muratorian Fragment

The earliest surviving attempt to define the New Testament canon, revealing that by the late 2nd century (or possibly the 4th century), Christian communities were actively deciding which texts carried apostolic authority.

The Muratorian Fragment is the oldest known document that attempts to list the books accepted as canonical Scripture by a Christian community. Named after the Italian historian and librarian Ludovico Antonio Muratori, who discovered and published it in 1740, the fragment survives as a single copy in an 8th-century Latin manuscript (Codex Ambrosianus I 101 sup.) held at the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan. The Latin text is clearly a translation from a Greek original and is written in poor, sometimes barely intelligible Latin that has challenged scholars since its discovery.

The fragment consists of 85 lines of text, beginning mid-sentence (the opening is lost) and ending abruptly (the conclusion may also be missing). Despite these lacunae, the surviving text provides enough information to reconstruct most of the author's canonical list. The traditional dating places the original composition around 170–200 CE, based on internal references, particularly the mention that the Shepherd of Hermas was written "very recently, in our time" during the episcopate of Pius of Rome (c. 140–154 CE). However, some scholars, notably Albert Sundberg and Geoffrey Hahneman, have argued for a 4th-century date, noting that the canon list more closely resembles 4th-century discussions than 2nd-century practices. The majority of scholars continue to favor the earlier date.

The fragment begins in the middle of a discussion of Mark's Gospel (the section on Matthew is lost) and proceeds to list books by name with brief descriptions:

The Gospel of Luke is identified as the "third book of the Gospel" and is attributed to Luke the physician, a companion of Paul. The author notes that Luke wrote "in his own name" based on what he had investigated, "since he had not himself seen the Lord in the flesh."

The Gospel of John is described fourth, and the fragment provides a narrative about its origin: John's fellow disciples and bishops urged him to write, and after three days of fasting, it was revealed to the apostle Andrew that John should write and the others should review it. This tradition about collaborative composition is unique to the Muratorian Fragment.

Acts of the Apostles is attributed to Luke, who compiled the events he himself witnessed.

Thirteen letters of Paul are listed: 1–2 Corinthians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, Galatians, 1–2 Thessalonians, Romans, Philemon, Titus, and 1–2 Timothy. The author notes that Paul wrote to seven churches (paralleling the seven churches of Revelation), suggesting a deliberate theological pattern. Two Pauline letters are rejected as forgeries: one "to the Laodiceans" and one "to the Alexandrians," described as "forged in Paul's name for the sect of Marcion."

Jude and "two of the above-mentioned John" (presumably 1–2 John, or possibly 2–3 John) are accepted. The Wisdom of Solomon is accepted "written by friends of Solomon in his honor." Revelation is accepted twice — both "the Apocalypse of John" and "the Apocalypse of Peter" — though the author notes that "some of us do not want [the Apocalypse of Peter] to be read in the church."

Notably absent from the list are Hebrews, James, 1–2 Peter (if "two of John" does not include Peter), and 3 John. Whether these absences reflect the author's rejection of these books, his ignorance of them, or gaps in the fragment is debated.

The Shepherd of Hermas is discussed at length: it "should indeed be read" but "cannot be read publicly in the church to the people" because it was written recently and is not among the prophets (whose number is complete) or the apostles (whose era has ended). This distinction between books that are edifying and books that are publicly authoritative is significant for understanding how the canon was being formed — not as a single decree but as a gradual process of distinguishing authoritative texts from useful ones.

The fragment explicitly rejects Gnostic texts and the writings of heretical groups, mentioning Valentinus, Basilides, and the Montanist prophets as sources of texts that must not be received. This polemical context suggests the canon list was driven partly by the need to distinguish orthodox from heterodox writings.

The Muratorian Fragment's significance lies in its evidence that the process of canon formation was well underway by the late 2nd century. The core of the New Testament — the four Gospels, Acts, Paul's letters, and Revelation — was already established, while the boundaries were still being negotiated for the shorter epistles and certain apocalyptic texts. This evidence complicates simplistic narratives of the canon being either "always known" or "arbitrarily imposed" by later church councils.

• Oldest known list of canonical New Testament books, likely composed c. 170–200 CE
• Survives in a single 8th-century Latin manuscript at the Biblioteca Ambrosiana, Milan
• Accepts the four Gospels, Acts, 13 Pauline letters, Jude, 1–2 John, Revelation, and Wisdom of Solomon
• Rejects forged Pauline letters 'to the Laodiceans' and 'to the Alexandrians' (Marcionite)
• The Shepherd of Hermas may be read privately but not publicly in church worship
• Notably absent: Hebrews, James, and possibly 1–2 Peter
• Internal reference to the Shepherd of Hermas being written 'very recently' suggests 2nd-century composition
• Demonstrates that canon formation was an ongoing process of distinguishing authoritative from edifying texts

The Muratorian Fragment provides the earliest evidence for the four-Gospel canon that became universal in Christianity. By the time of this list, the idea that there were exactly four authoritative Gospels — Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John — was established, though the author still felt the need to justify why there are four and to describe how each was composed. Luke 1:1–4, where Luke describes his investigative method, is essentially paraphrased in the fragment's description of the third Gospel. The fragment's discussion of Paul's letters organized around seven churches parallels the structure of Revelation 2–3, where Christ addresses seven churches. The author perceived a deliberate pattern: just as Christ's letters to the seven churches were meant for the universal church, Paul's letters to seven named churches were intended for all Christians everywhere. This hermeneutical principle — that letters addressed to specific congregations carry universal authority — became foundational for the Christian understanding of Scripture. The fragment's treatment of the Shepherd of Hermas illustrates the principle articulated in 2 Peter 3:16, where Paul's letters are placed alongside "the other scriptures." The process of recognizing certain texts as Scripture and others as merely edifying was already underway in the apostolic period and continued through the 2nd century, as the Muratorian Fragment demonstrates.