עַשְׁתֹּרֶת
Ashtoreth, the Phoenician goddess of love (and increase)
Definition
עַשְׁתֹּרֶת (Ashtoreth) is the proper name for the primary goddess of the Phoenician and Canaanite pantheon, worshipped as a deity of fertility, love, and war. In the biblical text, she is consistently presented as a foreign deity whose worship is a direct violation of Israel's covenant with Yahweh. The name appears in the plural form 'Ashtaroth' in some passages (e.g., Judges 2:13, 1 Samuel 7:3-4), which may refer to the goddess herself or collectively to female fertility deities. King Solomon is explicitly condemned for building high places for Ashtoreth (1 Kings 11:5, 33), and King Josiah later defiled these sites as part of his religious reforms (2 Kings 23:13).
Biblical Usage
The word is used exclusively in contexts describing the idolatrous worship of foreign gods by the Israelites or their kings. All three singular occurrences (עַשְׁתֹּרֶת) are found in the historical books of Kings, detailing the sins of Solomon and the reforms of Josiah (1 Kings 11:5, 33; 2 Kings 23:13). The plural form (עַשְׁתָּרוֹת) appears more frequently, often paired with the god Baal, to summarize Israel's apostasy (e.g., Judges 2:13, 1 Samuel 7:4, 12:10). This pairing underscores the comprehensive nature of their idolatry, turning from Yahweh to the dominant male and female deities of Canaan.
Etymology
The name עַשְׁתֹּרֶת is a Hebrew transliteration and deliberate distortion of the name of the Canaanite goddess 'Ashtart' (Astarte). Scholars believe it was modified by the Hebrew scribes by substituting the vowels of the Hebrew word 'bosheth' (shame), a common practice to express contempt for foreign gods (cf. the change from 'Baal' to 'Bosheth' in names like Ish-bosheth). It is linguistically connected to the Mesopotamian goddess Ishtar. The alternate biblical form עַשְׁתְּרָה (Ashtaroth, H6251) is likely a related variant or plural form.
Semantic Range
Ashtoreth represents the profound theological conflict in the Old Testament between the exclusive worship of Yahweh and the syncretistic worship of Canaanite fertility gods. Her presence in the text highlights the constant temptation for Israel to abandon their covenant God for deities associated with agricultural prosperity and sensual rituals. Understanding this term enriches the reading of narratives about the judges and kings, revealing that Israel's political struggles were often a direct consequence of this spiritual adultery. It underscores the First Commandment's demand for absolute loyalty to God alone.
In the ancient Near East, Ashtoreth (Astarte/Ishtar) was a major goddess worshipped for her power over fertility, sexuality, and warfare. Her cult often involved ritual prostitution and other practices explicitly condemned by Israel's law. For the Canaanites, worshipping Baal and Ashtoreth was believed to ensure agricultural fertility and national strength. The biblical authors, however, frame this worship not as a neutral cultural practice but as 'whoring after other gods'—a direct cause of divine judgment, social decay, and military defeat for Israel.
בַּעַל (Baʿal, H1168) — The chief male Canaanite storm and fertility god, frequently paired with Ashtoreth in descriptions of Israel's idolatry. תְּרָפִים (teraphim, H8655) — Household idols or figurines, possibly including images of deities like Ashtoreth, used for divination or worship (Genesis 31:19, Judges 17:5).
Word Details
How this works
Hebrew definitions are from Brown-Driver-Briggs (1906) and Strong's Exhaustive Concordance (1890), both public domain. BDB was groundbreaking for its era but reflects 19th-century assumptions about Semitic etymology. Modern scholarship (HALOT, DCH) has revised many entries. Use these definitions as a starting point for exploration, not as the final word on a term's meaning in context.
Full methodology & sources →