Commentaries, Hebrew
Early Interpretive Traditions
The history of Hebrew biblical commentary begins with the Targums — Aramaic translations of the Hebrew Scriptures that emerged during the Second Temple period. As Hebrew ceased to be the everyday language of Jewish communities, Aramaic paraphrases became necessary for public worship. These were not mere translations but interpretive renderings that wove explanation into the text itself. The Targum Onkelos (on the Pentateuch) and Targum Jonathan (on the Prophets) became the standard authorized versions, while other Palestinian Targums preserved alternative traditions.
Philo of Alexandria (c. 20 BC - 50 AD), though writing in Greek, stands as one of the earliest systematic interpreters of the Torah. His allegorical method sought to reconcile biblical teaching with Greek philosophy, profoundly influencing later Christian interpreters like Origen and Clement of Alexandria. Philo's approach treated the narratives and laws of the Pentateuch as symbols pointing to deeper philosophical and spiritual truths.
Midrash and Talmud
The Midrash represents a vast body of rabbinic interpretation that seeks to explore every possible meaning of the biblical text. Midrashic literature includes both legal interpretation (Midrash Halakha), which draws out practical law from Scripture, and homiletical interpretation (Midrash Haggadah), which uses narrative, parable, and creative exposition. Collections like the Mekhilta on Exodus and Sifre on Numbers and Deuteronomy preserve interpretive traditions spanning centuries.
The Talmud — both the Jerusalem Talmud (c. 400 AD) and the Babylonian Talmud (c. 500 AD) — contains extensive biblical interpretation embedded within its legal discussions. Though not a commentary in the formal sense, the Talmud's engagement with Scripture shaped the framework within which all subsequent Jewish interpretation operated. Its methods of close textual analysis, logical argumentation, and harmonization of apparently contradictory passages established enduring interpretive norms.
The Golden Age of Medieval Commentary
The medieval period produced the greatest individual Hebrew commentators, whose works remain essential references today. Saadia ben Joseph (882-942), the Gaon of Sura in Babylonia, produced an Arabic translation of the Bible with commentary, applying rational philosophical methods to interpretation. He combated the literalism of the Karaites, a sect that rejected rabbinic tradition and accepted only the written Torah as authoritative.
Rashi (Rabbi Solomon ben Isaac, 1040-1105) of Troyes, France, is arguably the most influential Jewish commentator of all time. His commentary on the Torah and Talmud combined concise linguistic analysis with carefully selected Midrashic traditions, making the text accessible to students of every level. His grandson Rashbam and student Joseph Kara continued his approach while placing greater emphasis on the plain meaning of the text.
Abraham ibn Ezra (1089-1167) brought grammatical precision and independent critical thinking to his commentaries, sometimes hinting at observations that anticipated modern biblical criticism. The Kimchi family — Joseph and his son David (Radak) — produced commentaries known for their grammatical clarity and balanced blend of literal and theological interpretation.
Maimonides (1135-1204), while primarily a legal codifier and philosopher, profoundly influenced biblical interpretation through his "Guide for the Perplexed," which addressed the philosophical dimensions of Scripture including the nature of prophecy, divine attributes, and the reasons for the commandments.
Mystical and Later Traditions
Alongside rationalist commentary, a mystical tradition of biblical interpretation developed through the Kabbalistic movement. The Zohar (13th century), attributed to Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai but likely composed by Moses de Leon, offered esoteric interpretations of the Torah that explored hidden dimensions of the divine nature and the spiritual structure of creation.
Don Isaac Abarbanel (1437-1508) wrote extensive commentaries that combined traditional rabbinic methods with historical and political analysis, reflecting his experience as a statesman in Spain and Portugal.
Modern Hebrew Biblical Scholarship
The modern period, beginning with Moses Mendelssohn's German translation and commentary (the Biur, 1780-1783), brought Jewish biblical scholarship into conversation with Enlightenment thought and modern critical methods. Scholars like Leopold Zunz, Samson Raphael Hirsch, and Malbim (Meir Leibush ben Yechiel Michel Wisser) developed distinctive approaches ranging from critical analysis to vigorous defense of traditional interpretation.
Contemporary Jewish biblical scholarship spans the full spectrum from traditional Orthodox commentary to historical-critical analysis, with scholars like Nahum Sarna, Robert Alter, and Moshe Greenberg producing works that combine literary sensitivity with deep knowledge of the ancient Near Eastern context.
Biblical Context
Hebrew commentaries engage with every book of the Hebrew Bible. The Torah (Genesis through Deuteronomy) has received the most intensive attention, particularly the legal sections of Exodus, Leviticus, and Deuteronomy. The prophetic books, especially Isaiah and Ezekiel, generated extensive commentary due to their theological complexity. The Psalms and wisdom literature (Proverbs, Job, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs) attracted both rational and mystical interpreters. The Five Scrolls (Ruth, Esther, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs) received special attention due to their liturgical use. Daniel and Ezra-Nehemiah, which contain Aramaic sections, were excluded from the Targum tradition since they already included the vernacular language.
Theological Significance
Hebrew commentaries preserve interpretive traditions that illuminate the meaning of Scripture in ways that the original audiences would have understood. They demonstrate the richness of the biblical text and the multiple layers of meaning it can sustain. For Christians, engagement with Jewish commentary provides essential context for understanding the Old Testament on its own terms and corrects interpretive blind spots. The ongoing tradition of Jewish biblical interpretation testifies to the vitality of the Hebrew Scriptures as a living text that continues to speak to new generations.
Historical Background
The development of Hebrew commentary is closely tied to the social and political history of the Jewish people. The Targums arose from the linguistic shift to Aramaic during and after the Babylonian exile. The Midrash and Talmud were products of the rabbinic academies in Palestine and Babylonia. The medieval commentators wrote under Islamic and Christian rule, often in dialogue with the dominant intellectual currents of their societies. The Karaite challenge in the 8th-10th centuries spurred rabbinic scholars to develop more rigorous methods of interpretation. The Enlightenment and emancipation brought Jewish scholars into the broader world of academic biblical studies, while the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in the 20th century revealed ancient interpretive practices that predated the rabbinic period.