Month
The Lunar Basis of Biblical Months
The biblical concept of a month was fundamentally lunar, derived from the cycle of the moon. The primary Hebrew term, chodhesh, literally means "new moon" or "newness," indicating the month began with the first visible crescent (Exodus 12:2; Deuteronomy 16:1). Another term, yerach, comes directly from yareach (moon), emphasizing the moon's circuit. This lunar system meant months were approximately 29.5 days long, requiring periodic intercalation (adding a month) to keep the agricultural and festival calendar aligned with the solar year.
Months in the Hebrew Calendar
The Bible references several month names, primarily from the pre-exilic and post-exilic periods. Early names were often numerical (e.g., "the first month," "the second month") or tied to agricultural features, like Abib (Exodus 13:4), meaning "ears of grain." After the Babylonian exile, the Jewish calendar adopted Babylonian month names still used today: Nisan, Iyyar, Sivan, Tammuz, Av, Elul, Tishri, Heshvan, Kislev, Tevet, Shevat, and Adar (with a second Adar added in leap years). Key religious festivals were anchored to specific months: Passover in Nisan (Exodus 12:18), the Day of Atonement in Tishri (Leviticus 16:29-30), and Hanukkah in Kislev (John 10:22).
The New Moon Festival
The beginning of each month (Rosh Chodesh) was observed as a minor religious festival. It was marked by special sacrifices (Numbers 28:11-15), the blowing of trumpets (Numbers 10:10), and a cessation from routine labor. The New Moon was a time for gathering, inquiry of prophets (2 Kings 4:23), and worship. The prophet Isaiah includes it among the festivals God finds burdensome when accompanied by injustice (Isaiah 1:13-14). It retained significance into the New Testament era, as Paul references observing "days and months and seasons and years" (Galatians 4:10).
Months in Biblical Narrative and Prophecy
Months provide the temporal framework for many biblical events. The Flood narrative carefully notes the months as the waters prevail and recede (Genesis 7:11, 8:4-5). The construction and dedication of Solomon's Temple is dated by month (1 Kings 6:1, 38). Prophetic visions are sometimes dated precisely by month, as with Ezekiel's visions "in the fifth month" (Ezekiel 1:1-2) and Zechariah's "on the twenty-fourth day of the eleventh month" (Zechariah 1:7). In the New Testament, Zechariah's temple service is during the "division of Abijah" (a monthly rotation) (Luke 1:5), and Paul spends three months in Greece (Acts 20:3).
Symbolic and Eschatological Significance
Beyond timekeeping, months carry symbolic weight. The number of months can signify a period of divine testing, blessing, or fulfillment. Job's suffering lasts months of futility (Job 7:3), while the promise of the messianic river brings fruit "every month" for healing (Ezekiel 47:12). In apocalyptic literature, months measure periods of tribulation and divine intervention. The book of Revelation specifies a period of 42 months (Revelation 11:2; 13:5), symbolizing a time of persecution and the triumph of God's ultimate plan, where time itself will be transcended in the new creation.
Biblical Context
Months appear throughout Scripture as the primary medium for dating religious, historical, and personal events. The Pentateuch (Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers) establishes the lunar calendar and ties festivals to specific months. Historical books (1-2 Kings, Ezra, Nehemiah) use months to date kings' reigns, temple construction, and returns from exile. The prophets (Isaiah, Ezekiel, Zechariah) date their visions by month. In the New Testament, months appear in narrative chronology (Luke, Acts) and symbolic apocalyptic time periods (Revelation). The month structures sacred time, marking rhythms of worship, agriculture, and God's interaction with history.
Theological Significance
The lunar month reflects a theology of time as God-ordered and cyclical yet pointing toward fulfillment. Its basis in the moon's phases declares God's sovereignty over creation (Psalm 104:19). The mandatory adjustment to the solar year highlights the integration of divine ordinance (festivals) with agricultural reality (God as provider). The celebration of each new moon taught Israel to regularly recommit time to God. Symbolically, the month represents measured, God-allotted periods for human history and suffering, culminating in the eschatological vision where time is redeemed—the tree of life yields fruit "every month" in the New Jerusalem (Revelation 22:2), signifying unending renewal and God's eternal provision.
Historical Background
Ancient Israel shared a lunar calendar system with other Near Eastern cultures (Canaanite, Babylonian). Archaeological evidence, like the Gezer Calendar (10th century BCE), lists agricultural activities by month. The adoption of Babylonian month names after the exile (6th century BCE) is confirmed by post-exilic biblical texts and later Jewish sources like the Mishnah. Intercalation (adding a 13th month) was necessary to reconcile the lunar year (~354 days) with the solar/agricultural year (~365 days); this was likely based on observed ripening of barley. Extra-biblical texts from Qumran reveal a solar calendar used by some Jewish groups, highlighting calendar diversity in Second Temple Judaism.