Septuagint, 2
The Challenge of Restoring the Original Septuagint
The task of recovering the original Greek text of the Septuagint is one of the most complex challenges in biblical scholarship. Over the centuries, the text was altered through repeated copying, deliberate revision, and influence from the Hebrew text. Three major ancient recensions (editorial revisions) further complicated matters: Origen's Hexaplaric text, the Lucianic recension from Antioch, and the Hesychian recension from Egypt. Each of these was produced with good intentions but introduced layers of change that must be carefully untangled.
The materials for reconstruction are abundant, including Greek manuscripts, ancient daughter versions translated from the Septuagint, and quotations by church fathers. Yet none of these sources has entirely escaped textual mixture, making the work painstaking and the principles for reconstruction still debated.
Ancient Daughter Versions
Among the most valuable aids for recovering the original Septuagint are the translations made from it into other languages. The Old Latin version is especially important because its earliest form (the African Old Latin) dates from the second century AD, before Origen's revisions. This version preserves a text that lacks the additions Origen marked with asterisks, providing independent confirmation that those passages were later insertions into the Greek.
The Coptic versions (Bohairic, Sahidic, and Middle Egyptian) also contribute, though their dating is less certain. The Sahidic version of Job, for example, preserves a shorter text without the later additions from Theodotion, reflecting an earlier form of the Greek. The Ethiopic, Armenian, Georgian, and Old Slavonic versions also derive from the Septuagint and offer additional witnesses, though they require careful evaluation.
Major Greek Manuscripts
The primary Greek manuscripts of the Septuagint include the great uncial codices of the fourth and fifth centuries. Codex Vaticanus (B), housed in the Vatican Library, is widely regarded as one of the best witnesses to the pre-Hexaplaric text. Codex Sinaiticus (Aleph), discovered at St. Catherine's Monastery on Mount Sinai, contains much of the Old Testament in Greek. Codex Alexandrinus (A), now in the British Library, represents a somewhat later text type.
Other important witnesses include the Freer Greek manuscripts, papyri from Egypt (some dating to the second century BC), and numerous minuscule manuscripts from the medieval period. Each manuscript has its own textual profile, and scholars must evaluate them carefully, often book by book, since the Septuagint was not translated all at once but over several centuries.
Printed Editions and Modern Scholarship
The first printed edition of the Septuagint appeared in the Complutensian Polyglot (1514-1517), followed by the Aldine edition (1518-1519). The Sixtine edition (1587), based primarily on Codex Vaticanus, became the standard text for centuries. In the modern era, the Cambridge Larger Septuagint (edited by Brooke, McLean, and Thackeray) and the Gottingen Septuagint have been the major critical editions. The Gottingen edition reconstructs the oldest recoverable text book by book, using the full range of manuscript evidence. Alfred Rahlfs published a widely used hand edition in 1935, which was later revised by Robert Hanhart.
The Books and Their Order
The Septuagint contains not only the books found in the Hebrew Bible but also additional works such as Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach (Ecclesiasticus), Tobit, Judith, and 1-2 Maccabees. The order of books also differs from the Hebrew canon. Where the Hebrew Bible groups books into Torah, Prophets, and Writings, the Septuagint arranges them into the Pentateuch, Historical books, Poetical/Wisdom books, and Prophets. This Septuagint ordering profoundly influenced the arrangement of the Christian Old Testament.
Why the Septuagint Matters Today
The Septuagint remains indispensable for biblical studies. New Testament authors quoted the Old Testament primarily from the Septuagint rather than the Hebrew text. When Paul writes that "all have sinned" (Romans 3:23) or the author of Hebrews quotes Psalm 40 in Hebrews 10:5-7, their wording follows the Greek translation. Understanding the Septuagint helps readers grasp how the New Testament writers read and interpreted their Scriptures, and it provides a window into the theological vocabulary that shaped early Christian thought.
Biblical Context
The Septuagint is the Greek Old Testament used extensively by the New Testament writers. Quotations from the Septuagint appear throughout the Gospels, Acts, and the Epistles. For example, the Septuagint's rendering of Isaiah 7:14 uses the word for 'virgin' that Matthew quotes in Matthew 1:23. Hebrews 10:5-7 quotes a Septuagint form of Psalm 40 that differs from the Hebrew. The Septuagint order and contents also influenced the shape of the Christian Bible.
Theological Significance
The Septuagint demonstrates how God's word crossed linguistic and cultural boundaries centuries before Christ, making the Hebrew Scriptures accessible to the Greek-speaking world. Its use by the apostles shows that the early church considered this translation authoritative for teaching and doctrine. The textual differences between the Septuagint and the Masoretic Text also raise important questions about textual preservation and the nature of Scripture's authority.
Historical Background
The Septuagint originated in Alexandria, Egypt, beginning in the third century BC under the patronage of Ptolemy II Philadelphus. The Letter of Aristeas narrates (with legendary embellishments) how seventy-two Jewish scholars translated the Torah into Greek. The remaining books were translated over the following two centuries. Origen's Hexapla (around AD 245) placed the Hebrew text alongside multiple Greek versions in parallel columns, profoundly affecting subsequent Septuagint manuscripts. The ancient recensions of Lucian (Antioch), Hesychius (Egypt), and the Hexaplaric tradition created distinct textual families that modern editors must sort through.