Targum
Origins and Purpose
The Targums arose from a practical necessity. After the Babylonian exile (586 BC), the Jewish people gradually adopted Aramaic as their everyday language, replacing the Hebrew in which their Scriptures were written. By the time of Ezra, many Jews could no longer understand the Hebrew Bible read in worship. Nehemiah 8:8 describes a pivotal moment: "They read from the book, from the Law of God, clearly, and they gave the sense, so that the people understood the reading." This practice of translating and explaining the Hebrew text in Aramaic became formalized over time into the Targums.
The Targums were not mere word-for-word translations. They ranged from fairly literal renderings to expansive paraphrases that incorporated interpretation, theological commentary, and traditional explanations. They served as the ancient equivalent of a study Bible for Aramaic-speaking Jewish communities, making Scripture accessible while simultaneously shaping how it was understood.
The Major Targums
The most important Targum is Targum Onkelos on the Pentateuch (the five books of Moses). Onkelos provides a relatively literal Aramaic translation and became the official Targum used in Babylonian synagogues. It generally avoids the anthropomorphisms found in the Hebrew text, substituting phrases like "the Word of the LORD" (Memra) or "the glory of the LORD" (Yeqara) for direct references to God acting or appearing in human form.
Targum Jonathan on the Prophets (both the Former Prophets — Joshua through Kings — and the Latter Prophets — Isaiah through Malachi) is attributed to Jonathan ben Uzziel, a student of the great rabbi Hillel. This Targum is more paraphrastic than Onkelos, especially in the Later Prophets, where it frequently inserts messianic interpretations and expands on the theological implications of prophetic texts.
Targums also exist for the Writings (Psalms, Job, Proverbs, the Five Scrolls, and Chronicles), though these are less standardized and were never given the same official status. A particularly expansive Palestinian Targum on the Pentateuch, sometimes called Pseudo-Jonathan or Targum Yerushalmi, includes extensive legendary material and interpretive additions.
How the Targums Were Used
In synagogue worship, the Targum was read alongside the Hebrew Scripture in a carefully regulated manner. After each verse of the Torah was read in Hebrew, a translator (called a meturgeman) would recite the Aramaic rendering. For the prophetic readings, the translation followed every three verses. The translator was not permitted to read from a written text but had to recite from memory, distinguishing the Targum from the inspired Scripture itself.
This oral character meant that Targums could develop and change over time, incorporating evolving interpretive traditions. Eventually, standard written versions were produced, but the Targums retained their character as living interpretive traditions rather than fixed translations.
Theological Significance for Bible Study
The Targums are valuable for several reasons. First, they reveal how ancient Jews understood specific biblical passages, providing a window into pre-Christian and early Jewish biblical interpretation. This is especially important for understanding the theological background of the New Testament. For example, the Targumic concept of the Memra ("Word") of God as a distinct divine agent may illuminate the background of John's Logos theology in John 1:1-14.
Second, the Targums show how concepts like the Messiah, the kingdom of God, and resurrection were understood in the centuries around the time of Christ. Targum Jonathan on Isaiah frequently identifies the Servant of the LORD as the Messiah, though it sometimes reinterprets the suffering passages to refer to Israel or to the enemies of the Messiah rather than to the Messiah himself.
Third, the Targums demonstrate the Jewish commitment to making Scripture accessible to ordinary people — a principle that would later drive Christian Bible translation efforts from Jerome's Vulgate to modern versions.
The Targums and the New Testament
Several New Testament passages may reflect Targumic traditions. Paul's statement that the Israelites "drank from the spiritual Rock that followed them, and the Rock was Christ" (1 Corinthians 10:4) echoes a Targumic tradition that the well of water followed Israel through the wilderness. Stephen's speech in Acts 7 contains details found in Targumic expansions of the Old Testament narratives. Jesus' teaching in parables and his interpretive methods show familiarity with the style of Aramaic biblical exposition.
The Targums remind modern Bible readers that Scripture has always required interpretation and application, and that the interpretive traditions of ancient Judaism form an essential context for understanding the world in which Jesus lived and the New Testament was written.
Biblical Context
The Targums cover the entire Hebrew Bible, though with varying degrees of completeness and authority. The practice of Aramaic translation is rooted in Nehemiah 8:8. Targumic traditions may stand behind several New Testament passages, including John 1:1-14 (the Logos/Memra), 1 Corinthians 10:4 (the following rock), and aspects of Stephen's speech in Acts 7. The Aramaic portions of Daniel (2:4-7:28) and Ezra (4:8-6:18; 7:12-26) reflect the same linguistic situation that produced the Targums.
Theological Significance
The Targums demonstrate how Jewish communities bridged the gap between sacred text and living faith. Their interpretive expansions show that Scripture was understood as a living word requiring explanation and application, not merely a static document. Targumic theology — especially the Memra, the Shekinah, and messianic interpretations — provides crucial background for understanding New Testament Christology and the early church's reading of the Old Testament.
Historical Background
The practice of Aramaic translation began during or shortly after the Babylonian exile and continued through the Second Temple period. Targum Onkelos was standardized in Babylonia by the third century AD, though its traditions are much older. Fragments of Targums have been found among the Dead Sea Scrolls (a Job Targum from Cave 11 and a Leviticus Targum from Cave 4), confirming that written Targums existed by the second or first century BC. The Cairo Genizah, discovered in 1896, yielded fragments of Palestinian Targums that enriched scholarly understanding of the tradition.