Woman (Hastings' Dictionary)

Heb. n^'K, a form stmiUr to ir^'x and c^'^jK ' man,' but, accord- ing to Ojcf. Ueb. Lex., not derived from the some root, but perhaps from ViH,, ' -'', with the senie o( ' tender," (rail.' On 2® (where Luther has Mannin, Symm. ithfit, Vulg. nVfl^oJ cannot be taken as an authoritative statement of etymoloj^'y ; but it illustrates a popular conception of the relation of the worda based on the Heb. tradition of the origin of woman.

In three places (Lv 1533, Xu ajls, )„ 81S2) AV, followed by KV, hoc the Eng. word 'woman' for •"'^SJ, which is literally 'female,' is used for the female of animals {e.{j. Gn 619, Lv 3'- 6), and tr. 'female' when applied to the human race in Gn 127 52. Gr. yu>r„ which also stands for * wife,' as does the Heb. equi- valent. In Ro 1-6-27 AY is followed by UV in using the Eng. word 'woman' for the Gr. Oy.ki,ai ('female').

The diminutive yvettxxpiet occurs in the plural in 2 Ti 3<*, and ia rendered 'silly women ' both in AV and in KV. For information on the social and legal status of woman in Israel see Family and AIarriage. There remain to be considered the place of woman in religion, Jewish and Christian, and the treat- ment of questions affecting woman religiously and ethically bj' the Scriiiture writers. i. In the Old "Test, and Judaism. —While sharing to some e.

\tent the universal Eastern con- ception of the inferiority of woman to man, the Jewish religion of biblical times by no means sanctioned the total subjection of woman sub- sequently authorized by Mohammedanism or the low view of woman's place in religion taken by rabbinical Judaism. A\omen seem to have enjoyed considerable rights and privileges in all the Semitic cults. This is apparent in the ancient Arabic cult, in which an important part was played by female divinities.

Most of the jin7i3 were female. According to Robertson Smith, ' in old Arabian religion gods and goddesses often occurred in pairs, the goddess being the greater' {KuLship and ilarriage in Early Arabia, u. 300). The Byzantine writers regarded the worsiiip of AphrodiU as the principal cult at Mecca. This idea is supported by recent research, the white stone being the original Meccan divinity, and the black stone her son, the very name ka!ba seeming to point to a supreme female deity.

Prostitution, both by married and by unmarried women, in imita- tion of the conduct of the goddess, was a recognized custom in the ancient Arabian cult. In the various functions of worship, bringing otTerings, stroking the sacred stone, etc., women took part as well as men, and in the cult of the dead it was their part to chant the rhythmical dirge. Women were also found m the official position of the kdtiin (seer), originally the chief otncer of the Arabian religion.

Woman also has a prominent place in the Babylonian, Assyrian, and Phoenician religions. This is seen in the prominence given to female divinities. The Habylonian Ishtar waa the mother go<ldes8 aijd head of all the gods. Among the Assyrians Astarte is the supreme goddess. It is to a go<i<le8s, apparently, that king Mesha devotes the Israelite captives in the inscription on the Moabite Stone. Then women took a prominent part in the worship.

There are in- scriptions with the words 'handmaid of Melkart,' 'sister of Melkart.' Women, too, were recognized as priestesses and prophetesses. Thus there were priestesses of Ishtar at Uruk. The OT contains evidence of the lead taken by women in idolatrous rites. Maacah, the mother of Asa, introduced tlie worship of Astart6 (1 K 15").

Jezebel in the Northern kingdom supported the prophets of the Phoenician cults and persecuted the followers of J" (1 K IS*-'"); and her daughter Athaliali iippan'iitly pl.ivfil tljc sami' p:irt in the Si)iitbi_-rti kiiiL-'loni (cf. '2 K S'^ ami 'J Cli 'il" with 2 Cli 22' and 24'). Jeremiah describes the devotion of the women of Jerusalem to the rites of Ishtar, kneading dough and making cakes which would be shaped like the moon (see QuEEN OF Hkavkn), to represent the goddess (Jer 7").

If we do not accept Stade's conjecture that 2 K 23"' is a gloss, po.s.silily the clause may refer to the work of some of the women in providing sacred garments for the worship of Astarte (i.e. on the suggestion oi Peritz that nuna [xituv, cf. Lucian <rro\ci?] be sub- stituted for the Alassorctic D'hd). Ezekiel men- tions the devotion of .Icrusalera women to the worship of tlie IJabylonian Adonis, saying, 'There sat the women wecjiing for Tammuz'(Ezk 8").

Women must have had their share in the horrible rites of Molech, which took place in the Valley of Hinnom, as the ' inhabitants of Jerusalem gener- 934 WOMAN WOMAN ally, without distinction of sex, are accused of having ' filled this place with the blood of innocenta ' (Jer ig'"").

It is therefore quite in accordance with con- temporary Semitic custom that woman should take part in the religion of Israel, as Peritz has demon- strated in his exhaustive monograph on the subject, a work to which this article is largely indebted. 1. The Partiiipation of Woman in the Privileges of Religion. — (a) Prni/er, e.g. the instance of Hannah' at Shiloh (1 S 1"").— (6) Feasts. In primi- tive times women attended the periodic religious gatherings of Israel.

It was taken for granted that the daughters of Sliiloh would be present at the annual feast (Jg il"""'"). Later, the wives and daughters of Elkanah are found attending the Shiloh festival ( 1 S l'"" 2'"). Women were present at David's feast and sacrifices on the recover}' of the ark (2 S 6'"). The Deuteronomic code makes express provision for the presence of women at the temple festivals. The Jews are exhorted to rejoice with their sons and their daughters (Dt 12'-).

Among those who are to eat the feast we have ' tliy (laughter ' and ' thy maidservant '(v.'*), ' thine household' (I4=« I5="), cf. W^- ". — {c) Sarrijices. Women also took part in the ancient sacrifices. When Manoah ottered a burnt-ottering because the angel of J" had visited him, his wife joined him in the deed.

They both ' fell on their faces to the ground' (Jg 13^), and it was the woman who said, ' If the Lord were pleased to kill us, he would not have received a burnt-ottering and a meal-ottering at our hand ' (v.-"). The Law required the attend- ance only of men at the yearly feasts iKx 23" 34'', Dt If)"); but it did not forbid women to come, and it is evident that custom, which lay behind the Law, allowed the attendance of women.

The lueaning of the Law was to make this obligatory on men while it was left optional with women, in part, no doubt, owing to the fact that they could not always take the necessary journey. The women of post -exilic times also have their share in religious functions. The presence of women is expressly mentioned in the account of Nehemiah's reading of the Law (Neh 8-^), and again in the description of the sacrifices and rejoicings associ- ated with the dedication of the city walls (12").

Certain sacrifices women were forbidden to eat, viz. the flesh of the sin-ottering, which was allowed only to males (Lv 6^). This plainly implies that they were allowed to eat of those sacrifices con- cerning which no such prohibition was made (see W. R. Smith, liS p. 379, note 2). The priest's daughters are mentioned with his sons as those who are to share with him in eating sacrificial meat (Lv 10").

If a priest's daughter is married to an alien she may not eat of the sacrifice, but the privilege will be restored to her on her widow- hood or divorce if she has no children (22', ') : cf. Nu 18". Women were required to bring sacrifices for purification (Lv 12. IS'""").— (rf) Vow.i. They were free to take the Nazirite vow (Nu (i-). — (e) Oracles. Women could consult oracles, as we read in the case of Kehekah (Gn 2.i"). — (/) Theo- jihanies.

They enjoyed the privilege of theo- plianies, as in the cases of Hagar (Gn 16'*- 21'"'-), Sarah (IS"-), Mano.ah's wfe (Jg n^"-). 2. Official and other leading Pusitiotis in Religion held by Women. — (a) Witchcraft. The lowest form of female influence in this direction is seen in the idea of witclicraft, according to which certain occult powers in dealing with the unseen world were ascribed to women.

The witch of Endor was bupposed to be holding intercourse with ' a familiar spirit,' which enabled her to call back Samuel from the deail against the will of the great seer ;iS28"'). The Law attached the death penalty to the crime of sorcery on the part of a woman, in the comnuand, ' Thou shalt not suffer a sorceress to live' (Ex 22'). For the purpose of divination women attached some sort of amulets to the arm (nin:3 Ezk 1.3', which the Hexapla reiulers ^uXok.

T^pia), and also something to the head, both used, according to W. R. Smith, for the purpose of in- voking the deity. With this we may compare Rachel's possession of the teraphim. She would hope to perform some occult rite with the idol and obtain an oracle from it (Gn 31'"). — (b) Mourning.

While the funeral rites and their accompanying lamentations were used for women as well as for men (Jer IG', Mk 5**), women took a prominent place in the performance of them, just as there were ' mourning women ' in Arabic heathenism. — (c) Tabernacle and temple service. There were ' serving- women which served at the door of the tent of meeting ' (Ex 38' ; the mention of these women in 1 S 2, '' is generally regarded as an interpolation).

No account of the service of these women is given anywhere in the OT. The LXX has in Exodua Tu>v VTjaTevacLU'uiv at dvijorevaav^ but in 1 Sam. rdf ■yviiaiKai Tas irapeaTjiaai ; Vulg. JJ/CB excubabant, and Targ. and Syr. have ' who prayed ' and ' who came to pray,' manifestly no more than a loose paraphrase of the original Hebrew nds, a word frequently used in the Priestly Code for some sort of Levitical service in the tabernacle (e.g. Nu 4^). The statement that the laver of brass, etc.

, were made out of the mirrore of ' the serving-women which served' (we might read 'which had served,' readingiN3sas a pluperfect), seems to imply that this service was no longer going on. Thus the sentence points to an ancient custom which had been aban- doned. Except that .some ritual service associated with the priest's sacrificial work is implied, it is impossible to say what the work of these women had been. — [d) Music, singing, and dancing.

Women appeared in choral dances on occasions of great victories and other sources of rejoicing (e.g. Ex IS*', Jg 11", 1 S 18", Ps68"). In company with singing men, women were also engaged in the temple choir (Ezr 2"). The register of returned exiles contains a reference to ' two hundred forty and five singing men and singing women' (Neh 7"').

We are left to conjecture what their special function was, but the fact that there were sub- sequently men and women singers in the temjile points to the conclusion that a guild of singers in connexion with public worship had been formed as early as the Exile. — (e) Prophecy. Women appear from time to time in the history of Israel as in- spired prophetesses.

Miriam is called a ' prophetess' (Ex IS-'"), and is associated with her brother Aaron in exclaiming, ' Hath J" indeed spoken only by Moses? hath he not spoken also by us?' (Nu 12-). The prominence of Miriam appears also in Mic 6* ' And I sent before thee Moses, Aaron, and Miriam' (see Miriam). Deborah appears both aa a prophetess and as a judge (.Ig4''-'). See Dehor ah.

Huldah a]ipears as a prophetess to whom the messengers of Josiah applied when they were directed to ' inquire of the Lord ' (2 K 22'^-^''). See Huldah. In Neh 6" 'the prophetess Noadi.ih' [but see NOADIAH] appears among ' the rest of the prophets' hired by Tobiah and Sanballat to himler the restoration of Jerusalem, who must therefore he regarded either as heathens or as false Jewish prophets. It is manifest that the appearance of a prophetess in Israel was quite exceptional.

The prophetic guilds did not include women ; they con- sisted only of ' sons of the prophets.' A prophetess was, like Amos coming from his farm work, not trained for ottice, but inspired and compelling re- spect by her gifts and the power of her utterancea. No law forbade her to speak ; no custom hindered her from rising to a position of great influence. ii. In the New Test, and Ciiristia.nitv.— WOM^N WOMAN 935 Tlie freedom and prominence of woman in the e.

irly Church, compared with the restraint and suppression commonly observed in Eastern civiliza- tion, are to some extent developments of con- temporary Jewish customs. Women moved freely about in society, and were present at the table of hospitality, though it cannot be shown that in Palestine they partook of the meals in common with men.

They went up to the temple to worship, but were there limited to the privilege of using the ' court of the women,' and could not advance 80 near the altar as men were permitted to go. They united in the worship at the synagogue, apparently sitting by themselves apart from the ni;ile worshippers.

Now that Conybeare has gone some way towards vindicating the De Vita Von- tcmp/ativa as a genuine work of I'liilo, it is possible to appeal to tliat treatise as a witness to customs current in the time of Christ.

The following extract describes the aiTangements of public wor- ship of the Therai]eut;e or Egyptian Essenes : — ' And this common holy place to which they all come together on the seventh day is a twofold circuit, being separated partly into the apartment of the men, and partly into a chamber for the women ; for women also, in accordance with the usual fashion there, form a part of the audience, having the same feelings of admiration as the men, and having adopted the same sect with equal deliberation and decision ; and the wall which is between the houses rises from the ground three or four cubits upwards, like a battlement, and the upper portion rises upwards to the roof without any opening, on two accounts : first of all, in orxler that the modesty which is so becoming to the female sex may be preserved; and, st-condly, that the women may be easily able to comprehend what is said, being seated within earshot, since there is then nothing which can possibly intercept the voice of him who is spealcing' {De Vit, Conteinp.

3). The phrase ' in accordance with the usual custom tliere ' shows that this participation in the Sabbath worship of men and women, but with some degree of ecparateness, was the common Jewish form of pro- cedure. The illustration of a battlement, the ujiper portion of which reached the coiling, indicated a wall perforated near the top with square holes. We cannot infer from this descrijition that the sepa- ration was by the same means and to the same extent in the synagogues of ordinary Jews.

All that is implied is that the sexes did not mingle in public worship, though tliey joined in the same acts of worship. In the simple room known as a irpofffvxn (Ac IG'^) there could have been no elaborate barriers of separation. Paul and Sil.as seem to have entered freely into the society of Lydia and the other devout women at Philippi. No olBce in the synagogue appears to have been open to women.

The limited education commonly enjoyed by all women but those of the weaUhy and leisured class would necessarily deljar them from much influence in intellectual regions. The Jews paid great attention to the education of children ; but whenever we meet with an explicit statement on the subject we read only of boys. Thus Josephus says that Moses ' commanded to instruct children ' (c. Apion. ii. 25), and ' we take most pains of all with the instruction of children ' {ib. i.

12) ; but when he is more explicrit he states that Moses prescribed ' that boys should learn the most im- portant laws ' {Ant. IV. viii. 12). Philo and the Talmud follow on similar lines (see Schiirer, IIJP II. ii. 27). The inference is that all young children were taught the elements of religion by their parents, but that when it came to the question of more exact instruction about the Law, in the sj-nagogue schools, this was conlined to boys. 1. The Prominence of Women in the NT.

— Women come to the front with reference to the life of our Lord. This is esiiecially the case in the Third Gospel, St. Luke delightiii;^ in gathering information concerning women and in showing their part in the Gospel story. It cannot bo maintained that the ^lagnificat, though ascribed to the Virgin Mary, was actually composed by her. It is more consonant with ancient literary custom to suppose tliat the evangelist sujiplies hymns of the .

lewish or Christian Church to ex- press the sentiments of the persons whom he represents as uttering tliem. But, while we may not venture to designate the mother of Jesus as a poetess, .\nna is distinctly represented as a pro- phetess who spent all her time in worsliip in the precincts of the temple (Lk 2*"). Our Lord's teaching and healing ministry was carried on among women as freely as among men.

The means for the support of Christ ami His apostles appears to have been cliieHy derived from the jon- tiibutions of women : this was in accordance with custom, women sometimes contributing largely towards the support of Rabbis (see Plummer, Intern. Com. on Lk 8''^). Women were prepared to perform the last oflices for the dead on the body of Jesus. In the early apostolic age it was to the hotise of a woman that St.

Peter went, after his liberation from prison during the persecution by Herod, to meet a considerable group of discijiles ('where manj/vrere gathered together,' etc.,. \c 12'-). We cannot infer that the whole Church was accus- tomed to mL'i't in this house, as lias been often .issumed, for the majority were not present on this occasion, nor was St. James, since St. Peter says, 'Tell these things unto .James, and to the brethren ' (v.")

At Jojipa, Tabitlia was a woman disciple liighly honoured for her 'good works and alms deeds' (Ac 9™). St. Paul's lirst convert in Europe was a woman, and he and his companions stayed at her house (16"-''). At Philippi, where this occurred, there were other women who laboured with the apostle (Pli 4^-'). Priscilla is mentioned before her husband in regard to their teaching of Apollos, as though she took the lead (Ac 18™). Timothy's faith is to be encouraged with memories of his mother's and gr.

andmotlier's earlier faith (2 Ti 1»). One NT Epi-stle (viz. 2 John) appears to have been written to a wom.an, thoui;h this is doubtful (see JoHN, EPISTLE.S or). Women hgure largely in the symbolism of the .-Vpocalypse, e.g. 'the woman Jezebel, which calleth herself a pro- phetess' (Kev 2-", see Jezebel, n.), the 'woman arrayed with the sun ' (12'"), the woman represent- ing ' Babylon the Great ' (I7'"-). 2. 2'he Gifts of Wome7i and the Exercise of them.

— There were no women among the Twehe Apostles, to whom special gifts of healing were given by our Lord. There is no jnoof that women disciples were not included among the Seventy ( Lk lO'"**), but there is no evidence that there were any, and the nature of the mission renders it improli:ilile. No miracle is ever attributed to a woman.

Still, as there were women in the churches among whom gifts of heal- ing were said to be distributed, and no exception in their case is named, it cannot be denied that they may have shared in these as in other gifts. No book of tlie NT claims to be written by a woman ; but Harnack assigns the authorship of Hebrews to Priscilla. Women were present at the day of Pentecost when the gift of the Spirit was bestowed (cf. Ac 1" and 2'"'), and must have shared in it, since St.

Luke, referring to the w hole company, says of the appearance of the tongues, that ' it sat upon each one of them ' (2"). Its result was propliecj' (v.'"), ami prophecy is the specilic gift, the exercise of which at Corinth by women St. Paul refers to (1 Co 11°), a gift which he prefers in honour to all others (H''). The apostle assumes that women proiihosy and pray in the church, only directing that they do so veiled. A little later he orders women to ' keep silence in the churclies ' (14").

This seems to imply that on further re- flexion he thought it not suthcient to jMotecB their modesty that women should wear veils whil* »36 WOMAN WOMAN preaching or praying, and therefore forbade their exercise of the gift of prophesying in public at all.

But observe, (a) this was at Corintli, a most dissolute city, where 1000 women were devoted to immorality at the shrine of Aphroditi on the Acrocoriiithus, and therefore where it was most important to preserve the modesty of the Chris- tian women from any suspicion or temptation ; and (6) in the context of the second passage St. Paul does not again mention prophesj'ing or pray- ing, but saj's, ' It is not permitted unto them to speak' (XaXcii/, which might be rendered 'talk').

1 his looks as though the apostle were now thinking of mere chattering, or, at best, questioning, especi- ally as he adds, 'And if they would learn anything, let them ask their own husbands at home ' (v.^^). The ground of the prohibition is more than the requirements of modesty ; it is the idea of the sub- jection of married women to their husbands (' but let them be in subjection,' ib.)

Possibly there was a temporary and local reason for this apostolic precept in the condition of the Corinthian Church at the time. The apostle's words suggest the idea that in some cases the new, laro;e family brother- hood and sisterhood of the Churcli was threatening to submerge the original relationships of the home. That must be prevented. But that the apostle holds to a certain subjection of woman in general must be inferred from his appeal to Genesis (S"").

This, however, is to be considered rather as a matter of order than a question afl'ecting the spiritual status of women. When referring to the latter, St. Paul lays down the principle that in Christ ' there can be no male or female ' (Gal 3^). It has been said that the apostle was inconsistent with the principle here enunciated when giving his specific directions to the Corinthians (McGitt'ert, Apost. Age, p. 305).

But he had also said 'there can be neither bond nor free ' (Gal 3-*), and yet he sent the slave Onesiraus back to his master (Philem "). In both cases he supported established customs for the time being while enunciating great principles which would ultimately abolish them. Thus the NT leads to the emancipation of woman as to the abolition of slavery, not by sudden re- volution from without, but by gradual evolution from within. St.

Paul's lofty conception of mar- riage (Eph 5, '^), while including the subjection of women, involves the dignity of womanhood. Even under the restrictions required at the time, it is manifest that women enjoyed more liberty and were more on an equality with men in the church than in the synagogue. There could have been no such separation as Pliilo(?) describes. 1 Cor. plainly indicates that women took part with men at the Aga2>i.

Tliey must have been in view if it was requisite for them to be veiled. Their prophesy- ing before the Church involves their being in the presence of tlie whole community. Doubtless, tlie sexes were so far divided as lliat the men and women sat in separate groups, since this was the ciistom in the churches of early patristic times.

That the kiss of Christian brotherhood and sister- hood was not restricted between the sexes is plain from the fact that in later times it was subject to abuse, which led to the restriction being imposed upon it. Athenagoras (A.D. 177) quotes some apocryphal writing under the designation of ' the Logos ' in rebuke of the abuse, which says, ' If any one kiss a second time because it gives him pleasure,' etc.

, and again, ' Therefore the kiss, or rather the salutation, should be given with the greatest care, since, if there be mixed with it tlie least delilement of thought, it excludes us from eternal life ' (Legal. pro Christian. 32). Clement of Alex, condemns ' the shameless use of the kiss, which ought to be mystic ' (Pcedagog. iii. 11). Tertullian remarks on I he reasonable complaint of a pagan husband that his wife should ' meet any one of th« brethren to exchange a kiss ' (ad Uxor. ii. 4).

Accordingly the custom was altered, the earliest instance oi the new regulations appearing in tha Apostolical Constitutions : ' Let the clergy salute the bishop, the men of the laity salute the men, the women the women' (Const. Apostol. viii. 2. See Diet, of Chr. Ant., art. ' Kiss '). 3. Offices held by Women. — There were no women apostles. The elders were all men, in accordance with the invariable custom of the synagogue.

It is given as a sign of the ' contempt ' into wliich re- ligion had fallen in the 5th cent., that women were found to be acting as priests at the altars, a com- I)laint implying that this was an innovation pre- viously unheard of (see Diet, of Chr. Ant., art. ' Women '). Two offices are said to have been held by women in the NT Church — the office of the Deaconess and that of the Widow. — (a) Deacon- esses. There is no certain description of the office of deaconess in the NT.

We meet with deacons in Ph 1' and in 1 Ti 3""'^, but without any clear re- ference to deaconesses, though in the latter passage deacons' wives are referred to ; and there is men- tion of women in the course of the directions about the deacons (v."), and before the mention of their wives, which seems to suggest that women deacons are meant. Earlier than this, Phoebe of Cenchrea ia called 'a servant of the Church' (Ko 16'). The word is oid/coi/os, RVm 'deaconess.'

In the earlier parts of the Apostolical Constitutions (ii. 20, iii. 15), ri oiaKovo^ is the title of the deaconess ; later we have Siaubviaaa (viii. 19, 20, 28). See Sanday-Head- lara, in loc, also Lipsius, who considers that Phoebe's work would be care of the sick and of strangers. The fact that she went with a letter of recommendation suggests that she was travelling in the service of the Church.

She must have been a woman of wealth and social standing, which gave her importance apart from her office, as she is called Tpoardri^, i.e. ' patroness.' See Phcebe. The earliest definite reference to deaconesses is in Pliny (Ep. X. 96), ' Quo magis necessariiim credidi ex duabus ancillis, quce ministrm dicebantur, quid esset veri et per tormenta qtia;rere.'

The title ' ministrre,' by which Pliny says these ' hand- maidens' — surely in a humbler position than that of Phoebe — were known, is the Latin representative of SidKovoi and dcaKovKraai ; the former of which titles would probably have been in use in Bithynia.

There is nothing in the NT to identify the deaconesses with the ' widows ' of the Pastoral Epistles ; and if 1 Ti 3" refers to deaconesses, they must be in a distinct office, as they are mentioned apart from the widows, to whom reference is made later (5'"'"). See Lightfoot, Com. on PA., Dis- sertation on Chr. Ministry, p. 189. We have no de- scription of the work of deacons and deaconesses.

But the significance of the title, pointing to service in distinction from the work of ruling entrusted to the elders or bishops, implies that they would have the care of the poor, ' serving tal)les ' like ' the seven' (Ac G-'*).

The division of labour effected in the appointment of the- seven is also implied in the Pastoral Epistles, since, while the bishop is required to be a capable teacher (Tit 1'), tliat is not said of the deacon ; much less, then, could it have been required of the deaconess. Priscilla'a instruction of Apollos, in conjunction \vith her husband, is not associated with any office. — (b) Widows, see Widow. Literature.

— See the works named in the articles on Family and Marriaok; also Peritz, Woman in the Ancient llet/reit Cult; W. R. Smith, RS ; Stade, Oenchichte ; Schwally, /.4 7'IF xi. p. 176 IT. ; Schechter, Studies in Judaism; Wellliausen, Reste arabischeji Hindentwnjt; Allen, Christian Institutions } Bartlet, The Apostolic Age; McGilTert, Uist. of Christianity in Vie Apoat. Age; the Interr^at. Critical Comin. and the llandr Comrn«/Uaroa passages reft rred to. W. F. ADliNKY. \rooD WORLD 937