Family (Hastings' Dictionary)

1. Scope, Terms, and Data.— The term family is used in many different senses : (a) For larger or smaller groups of persons con- nected by blood or marriage, from the family in the narrowest sense — a man with his wives and children, and sometimes his mother — to the widest I aggregate of kinsfolk between whcra relationship is traced — the clan, tribe, nation, or even the human race, (b) In a looser sense for communities living in close and permanent intercourse, from the household — Including dependants as well as kins- folk— to the clan, etc., including persons not of the main stock, (c) In various fig. senses with which we are not concerned here. UT recognizes and connects the groups denoted hy family in (a) and (6), but has no single term for them ; still less ha« it any term corresponding to the Eng. family. n:3 house, approaches most closely to the range of meaning oi family in (a) and (4); in Gn 7' Noai witli his wife and sons and daughters-in-law are called his house ; we have also the house of David 2 S 3', of Levi {i.e. tribe) Nu 17, of Israel (i.e. the nation) Ex 16^'. In P and Ch 3x n'3, RV father^ house, is a technical term for a subdivision of ■ tribe. The origin of these terms in the concrete dwelling connects them with (J), cf. similar use of 'J.ix tent, in Ps 18^ 83'. So also nn^fc, EV family, is explained (Ges., Fuerst) as etymologic- ally a union, obsolete V '^-^ to join, but Buhl connects with Arab, sajtaha, topour out, and with .inca. 'c is strictly a clan, and is used in P and late writings (Nu 2, etc.) for the largest division of a tribe ; but its meanings also range from the clan to the tribe (Jg 13-) and the nation (Jer 33^^). Other terms are derived from the physical tie between kinsfolk, and connect with (a), jnj seed (Gn 12'), csi; bone (Gn 29'), if? flesh (Gn 29'), HNf flesli (Lv 18'2), with its derivative .tikp (Lv IS''), in the sense of blood-relation ; the com- pounds of i"?' bear, beget, mJ'D offspring (Gn 48'), kinsfolk (Gn 3P), nn^in clans (Nu 1). Also, young children collectively are is, V IBO take qui<:/c short steps. njN3 (Ezk 11") La a misreading (CornUl, etc. «'./.). This brief statement as to terms shows how the family was bound up with all the social and political arrangements of Israel. Hence it is difficult to draw any natural line of division between the family and other social and political groups, whose insti- tutions are expressed in terms of the family, and derived in fact or theory from it. Moreover, it is often maintained that the idea of the family originated in a social group larger than and different from that consisting of a single man with his dependent women and children. If this is in any measure true, the relations between the family (in the narrower modem sense) and the larger social groups will be still more complicated. This article will oe confined, as far as possible, to the family proper, and the larger social groujis will be dealt with in the art. Tribe ; but it will be necessary to make some allusion to the relations of the family to the clan, etc. The data for our subject are the narratives of the family life, esp. of the patriarchs, of Ruth, of David, and of Tobit ; the laws dealing vrith the family ; and the various allusions to the subject. OT narratives are, of course, valid authorities for the manners of the times in which they originated, whatever view may be held as to their historicity. Unfortunately, however, both narratives and — m a less degree — laws mostly treat of royal, noble, or wealthy families and their slaves, and we have little direct information as to the poorer free Israelites. Doubtless, the same general principles governed family life amongst all classes, and the wealthy families and their dependants constituted a large proportion of the population ; but we have always to bear in mind tliat the familiar OT pictures are concerned chiefly >vith certain classes, and that for other cases we must allow for tha effect of inferior rank and smaller means. ii. Members. — The members of a Heb. family or household included some or all of the following: FAMILY rA]\IILY 847 tbn man, as snpreme head of the household ; hia mother, if residing with liira after the death of his father; his wives; his concubines; the wives' children ; the concubines' children ; children of Other women, e.g. Jeplithah (Jg 11'); daughters- in, law ; sons, in, law, for example, Jacob with Lallan ; other free Isr. relatives, friends, or ucpendants ; gerim or resident foreigners, EV 'the stranger that is within thy gates' Jsee Gkr) ; male and female slaves, Isr. and foreign, home- bom and purchased. Thus the ancient Ileb. was larger than the modern family ; polygamy in- crea.'ied the number of women and children de- pendent on a single man ; married sons and their families often remained in their father's household ; the insecurity of primitive life led individual resid- ent aliens, etc., to attach themselves to households, (a) Husbamts Mother. — niori hdmuth, AV and RV mother-in-law. In Mic 7» (quoted Mt KP, Lk 12==") the htlmCth is perhaps the wife of the living head of the household ; in Ru, Naomi, herself a widow, is the /uuiu'tlh of widows. Hut the hdmuth attained Bpecial importance and dignity when, after the death of her husband, her son became the head of the family. She was then the most import- ant and influential woman in the household ; a man had many wives, only one mother ; he had been trained in deference and obedience to his mother ; his wives were his property, and absolutely subject to his authority. Tliey had often been selected by his mother, e.g. IshuKU'l's wife by Hagar (Gn 21»', cf. 2 Es 9"). In the history of the families best known to us — the royal houses of Isr. and .luilah — there are numerous indications of the exalted position of the mother of the reigning king. Sue bears the title nrSJ miitress. Her name is regularly given in the paragraph describ- ing an accession, while nothing is said about the wives. Mtiacah, Jezebel, Athaliah, and Nehushta (2 K 24'- '^- ", cf . Jer 22''") appear as exercising great influence in the rei":iis of their sons. The an.ilogy of modern Eastern life fully warrants us in taking the position of the queen-mother as representing that of the mother of the head of any ordinary family. Sometimes a widow herself appears as head of a household, e.g. Micah's mother (Jg 17'"), Naomi in Ru, the Shunammite (2 K 8'«), Tobit's grandmotlier (To 1'); cf. al.so the po.sition of the mother of our Lord during His ministry. (b) Husband, Wives and Concubines. — The generic terms «>'i<, e^ux mnn, nj'x woman, are com- monly used for husband and wife, as in most languages. This usage recognizes the funda- mental nature of sex\ial characteristics. In spite of tlie similarity of the two words, Oxf. Ileb. Lex. speaks of ' the impossibility of deriving ei-tt and nj" from the same root' ; consequently, all deduc- tions based on the reference of the two words to the same root are without any true foundation. The husband is Sjis master, as supreme over his wives, who are slaves acquired by capture in war (Dl 2I"'"), or by purchase (Gn 34"', Ex 22", Dt 22", Ku 4'°). It would be misleading to apply the term 'frcewoman' to any Israclitess, except perhaps to a widow. Even in the Mishiia, ' women, slaves, and children ' are constantly grouped together, e.g. Deracholh, iii. 3, and ' a woman is always under the authority of her father until she is placed under the authority of her husband,' Kelubulh, iv. 3. The wife as in subjec- tion to the ba'al is bc'uli'th (Is 54'). The rights of a husband over his wives were limited by atlection and custom, by the terms of the marriage cove- nant or contract (Gn 31"- •", To 7'), by the influ- ence of the wife's family, also by certain specific laws. The marital supremacy involved the right of divorce at the husband's discretion. This is laid down in Ut 24', which, however, imposes certain vague and obscure conditions, prtbably intended to discourage capricious divorce (Ben- zinger, Hcb. Arch. 346). Is 50', Jer 3' show that it was usual to give the divorced woman 123 mn-15 ' a bill of divorce,' doubtless that she might be able to resist any attempt on his part to reclaim his rights over her, a divorced woman being in a sense an emancipated slave. Dt forbids a man to divorce his wife, if he has falsely charged her with unchastity before marriage (22"- '"), or if he himself seduced her and had been compelled to many her in consequence (22^- ^). These enact- ments and the protest in Mai 2" point to a fre- quency of divorce. A wife could not divorce her husband (Benzinger, 341). Other limitations of the husband's rights were that he might not marry a sister of one of his living wives (Lv 18'") ; if a man hears his wife make a vow and does not disallow it at once, he may not do so afterwards (Nu 30"). Even if a woman has been purchased from her parents as a concubine (i?!?; ) and he does not wish to retain her, he may not sell her to strangers ; he must either let her kinsfolk buy her back, or betroth her to one of his sons. If he takes another wife or concubine, he must either main- tain the lirst in her full rights, or let her go free without payment (Ex 21'"''). Even a captive who has been taken to wife may not be sold as a slave, but if sent away must be dismissed free of pay- ment (Ut 21""'-). Similarly, in modern Arabia it is held disgraceful to sell a concubine. The rights of a wife would necessarily include those of a concubine. No very clear information is given as to the rela- tive status of wives and concubines, rrfv. woman, is sometimes used as a general term for a wife or concubine (Gn 30^) ; sometimes for \vife as distin- guished from concubine (1 K IP). The words ntij (in Hex., chiefly ED), nri^p (in Hex., chiefly JP), and ^jJi'S, seem to be practically synonymous when used of concubines. In households where the person of every female slave was — witl. few ex- ceptions— at the dispo.sal of the master (Benzinger, 162), and where the relative status of the women depended chiefly on his favour, definite and nicely graduated distinctions were impossible. Amongst modern Mohammeilans, a man may cohabit with any of his female slaves who is a Mohammedan, a Christian, or a Jewess ; and, conversely, he cannot have as a slave a woman whom he acknow- ledges to be within the prohibited degrees of marriage (Lane, Arabian Nitjhts, i. 55, 56). The only definite advantage claimed by wives over concubines is that their children should inherit a larger share, or even the whole, of their father's property, e.g. Sarah's claim for Isaac (Gn 21'"). Nevertheless the wife, because her position was the result of her husband's favour, and was often guaranteed by powerful relatives, would often enjoy superior consideration, and exercise a greater influence. Sarah, R.achel, and Leah had slave- girls, nin;:^ {shcphdliulh), who were their own pro- perty; and when these became concubines, tliey were still under the authority of their mistresses. Polygamy is both recognized by the law and de- scribed in the history ; nearly all the kings and judges of whom we have particulars have a large Iiarem. Ace. to Justin (jrn//)/io, 134), even in his time Jewish teachers permitted each man to have four or five wive8(cf. Jos. Ant. XVII. i. 2 ; Mishna, Kci/u.ihin, ii. 7, etc.). But considerations of ex- pense and the ajiproximately eciual numbers of the two sexes place narrow limits on polygamy. Nowack {Jlcb. Arch. i. 159) points out that Ab- raham and ElUanah have two wives, that n-i)! 'adversary' is a technical term for one of two wives, and that Dt 21"''- speaks of two wives, one beloved, the other hated. He thinks that such 348 FAMILY FAMILY bigamy would be very common. In the nature of the case, a large proportion of the population must have been monogamous ; cf. the cases of Adam (Gn 2»-»«), Noah and his sons (6'8 7" 8"), Lot (19">), Isaac, and Joseph. Probably, the monogamy of these patriarchs is narrated as an example. The family q^uarrels arising out of polygamy are suffi- ciently illustrated from the familiar examples of Sarah and Hagar, Rachel and Leah, Hanii.ih and Peninnah, and the famUy history of David (cf. Sir 37" 26' where dtTifTJXo^ = rriy). On the other hand, Heb. family life must be judged from the point of view of the ancient East, and not from that of the modem West. From the former, there was nothin" immoral in polygamy, and the status of wives and concubines was neither regarded by otlier.s nor felt by themselves to be humiliating. The acrostic on the Capable Woman, 'esheth hayil (Pr 31'°""). testifies to the honourable position of the faithful wife. We have little Information as to the marriages of slaves ; apparently, the tie between them was not very binding. A couple who had come into a master's possession as a married couple were to be released together at the end of six years ; but if, after a man became a slave, his master married Lim to another slave, and children were born, the man either went away alone, or remained a slave for the sake of his family (cf. NLaebiaqe, Woman). (c) Parents and Children. — The etymologies of 31J father, dn mother, are quite uncertain ; they are common to most Sem. languages, are appar- ently connected with the terms for father and mother in the Aryan and other families of lan- guages, and are probably older than the triliteral roots. [3 son and its fern, ns have been somewhat improbably connected with njj to build ; tliey too, also, are probably older than the triliteral roots. The father was supreme over the children ; he could dispose of the daughter in marriage (Gn 29), [but (Lv 19^) he might not make her a prostitute], and arrange his son's marriage (Gn 24), or sell his chUdren as slaves (Ex 21') — where, however, the father is forbidden to sell his daughter to a stranger (Neh 5"). The power of die and death is attested by the proposed sacrifice of Isaac, the case of Jephthah's daughter, and the practice of sacrificing children to Molech (Lv 18^' 20^'°, 2 K 23", Jer 32"). The utmost respect and obedi- ence to both father and mother are insisted on in Ex 20", Lv ig, Dt 5'«, Pr l^ 6» 19=« 20-« 232^ 28, ' 30"- ", cf. Ezk 22', Mic 7'. Similarly, Ex 21>»- ", Lv 20' direct that any one smiting or cursing father or mother shall be put to death ; Dt 27" invokes a curse upon any one who is disrespectful to father or mother. Pr 13^" etc. insist on the duty of strict domestic discipline, though doubtless the ' rod ' may be understood as including other cjias- tisement "besides corporal punishment (cf. Pr 17'"). Dt 21"'" directs that a stubborn and rebellious son, a glutton and a drunkard, is to be stoned to death by his fellow-citizens, on the testimony of his father and mother given before the elders. Such laws really imposed limits on the authority of the father ; he must not himself put his son to death, but must procure his punishment by a public legal process. The constant coordination of father and mother in such passages practically places the mother on the same level ^vith the father with regard to the children. Indeed, polygamy makes each mother much more important to her own children than their father is. In a polygam- ous family, each mother and her children form a sub, famuy, — Jacob's wives and concubines have separate tents (Gn SI''), — the management of which is in the hands of the mother. Hence the early education and training of chUdren was mostly given by the mother. Children were named by the mother, e.g. Jacob's sons (Gn 29, 30); sometimes also by the father, e.g. Ishmael (Gn 16'°), Isaac (Gn 21'). The long period of suckling — infants were not weaned till the second or third year — must have constituted an added bond be- tween mother and chUdren. The religious instruc- tion appointed in Ex 12^'" 13»-», Dt 4» 6'- -^ U" would probably be given by the mother. The sayings of king Lemuel (Pr 31'"") were taught him by his mother. On the other hand, Pr constantly refers to the mAsar (RV ' instruction ') of the father, as well as to the tCrdh (RVm 'teaching') of the mother (1"). Ace. to the rank and wealth of the family, the care of the children would devolve in whole or in part on female slaves. Rebekah (Gn 24') and Joash ben-Ahaziah (2 K 11') had each a foster-mother meneketh (RV 'nurse'), though Rebekah, at any rate, had a mother living. Mephibosheth ben- Jonathan had an 'dmeneth (RV ' nurse,' 2 S 4). The grandmother, on either side, would, by all analogy, have much to say about the trainin" of the children ; Naomi became the 'Omeneth of Ruth's baby (Ru 4'°). We also have the masculine '6men (RV 'nursing father, Nu 11'", Is 49^). From the analogy of the guard- ians of the sons of Ahab (2 K 10'- ), and of Nathan (2 S 12-°), tliis would appear to have been a kind of tutor or 7rai5o7ai7ii. Schools for children are first mentioned in Josephus (Ant. XV. x. 5) and Mishna (Shab. i. 3). Ace. to Talm. Jerus. (Kethub. viii. 1 1 ) the first school for children was established by Simeon ben-Shetach, a century before Christ (Stapfer, 141) ; ace. to 'Talm. Bab. Baba Bathra (Nowack, i. 172), a system of schools in every town was established by Jesus ben-Gamla, who became high priest in A.D. 64. In such schools reading and ^vriting would be taught ; any other instruction would mainly consist of committing Scripture, etc., to memory, by repeating passages after the teacher. (d) Brothers and Sisters. — The circumstances of Israelite life — the need of labour to till the soil, and of warriors to defend the homestead from the raids of neighbouring tribes, rendered a large family a great blessing (Ps 127^'). The natural checks — war, famine, and pestilence — prevented all danger of over-population. The labour of girls in the house- hold, the price that might be obtained for them as wives or concubines, and the alliances witli power- ful neighbours that might result from their mar- riages, gave a certain value to daughters ; but the Isr. father's chief desire was for sons ; it was the first-born sons who were sacred to J" (Ex 22^). The physical token — circumcision — of the national covenant with J" is such as can be borne only by males ; a mother is unclean for 14 days after bearing a daughter, but only for 7 after the birth of a son. Daughters are very rarely mentioned by name. Each sub-family of full brothers and sisters, the children of one mother, had interests of its own, which clashed with those of the other subfamilies. Domestic friction was specially strong in the numerous smaller households where there were two wives, e.g. Hannah and Peninnah [cf. the term nnj (Dt 21"'''), and for two wives in a large house- hold, Sarah and Hagar]. The relative status of the sub-families depended on the family relation- ships of the mother, the favour shown lier by her husband, and in some measure on her being wife or concubine. We have already seen that claims Avere sometimes made that the children of a wife should oust those of a concubine from all or part of their share of the family inheritance. But these claims are not sustained by any legal ordinance or even by any general custom. The sons of Jacob's concubines rank as ancestors of tribes. It is tnia FAMILY FAMILY 849 that they are reckoned in a sense as children of their motliers' mistresses, but the same was true of Islimael, who was excluded from the seed of the promise. There was no dill'erence of legitimacy in our sense between tlie sons of wives and concubines ; even Jephthah, the son of a zoniih or prostitute, is brought up in his father's house, and liis expulsion is evidently regarded as an act of unjust violence (Jg 11'-') (Renzinger, 148, 135). Apparently, all a man's acknowledged children were legitimate, without regard to the status of their mother. The basUrd, mamzer (Dt 23^ [EV •'], Zee 9«), is generally re^rded as the offspring of incest or adultery (Dillm. and Driver on Dt '23-). Possibly, however, mamzer may include children of prostitutes, whose fathers were unkno\\'n or did not acknowledge them. In earlier times polygamous sub-families were so distinct that brothers married half-sisters, e.g. Abraham and Sarah (Gn 20"). In 2 S 13" Tamar thinks that David would certainly sanction her marriage with her half-brother. Such anions are, however, forbidden by Lv 18'. The same causes which rendered the mother more important to her children than the father, often rendered the brothers the special guardians of their full sisters, e.g. Laban of Kebekah, Simeon and Levi of Dinah (Gn 34), Absalom of Tamar. So, children often maintained a close connexion with their mother's family, Jacob (Gn 27'), Abime- lech ben-Gideon (Jg 9'), Absalom (2 S 3', 13^'). The sons were the heirs, but in the absence of sons the daughters might inherit, and after the daughters other male relatives in order of kinship (Nu 27''"). A special birthright and a larger share of the inheritance were given to the first-bom, both in the histoiy (Gn 49») and the law (Ex 22-); but the blkhCrdh, or right of the first-born, was not purely a matter of priority of birth, it might be sold, e.g. by Esau to .Jacob, or bestowed on a younger son by a partial father, Dt 21"— which forbids such a prac- tice. Side by side, however, with the first-born, the youngest son const.iiitly appears as the object of special favour, both from God and his parents, e.g. Abraham, Isaac, Bethuel, Jacob, Joseph, Kphraim, Moses, David, Solomon (cf. Heir). («) Married Children, Daughters-in-law, Sons-in- law. — A married son would remain part of the father's family, though not necessarily of his house- hold, while the father lived. He would still bo in some measure suliject to his autliority. The patriarchs were married men with families when Isr. went down into Egyjtt, but Jacob was still the head of the family (cf. Job 1). So the daughter- in-law joined her husband's family and came under the authoritv of her father-in-law (To 10'"), to whom she was subject even after her husband's death, e.g. Judah and Tamar (Gn 38). If her father-in- law was dead, she belonged to her brother-in-law or husband's next-of-kin (Dt 2o°, Ru 3"), or might remain with her mother- in-law (Ku 1'). Some- times, however, a man joined his wife's family, at %ny rate for a time, and fell under the authority of his father-in-law, e.g. Jacob (Gn 29-31), Moaes (Ex 2-»'-'= 4'«, cf. Gn 24» ; see § v.). (/) Other free Dependants. — Doubtless, more distant relatives, cousins, etc., friends and free servants, would sometimes form part of the family in the narrower sense ; but we have hardly any information on the subject. Little is said as to hired servants ; probably they were hired only for short periods, and did not form part of the employer's family. Micah's J^evite, indeed, was hired to be ft priest permanently at a regular stipend, 'and the j'oung man was unto him as one of his sons ' ('Jg 17")- The resident alien, ger (UV 'stranger'), tusht'ibh (RV 'stranger' or 'sojourner'), is con, ■tantly refened to, and is commended to the good VOL. I. — $4 offices of the Israelites. The ger is mentioned in close connexion with the other dependent memlierf of the household (Ex 20'°, Lv 25«). He seems to have placed himself under the protection of the family rather than the clan ; he probably rendered some services in return for protection and susten- ance, and may often have been a hired servant ; he was evidently a familiar figure in Isr. society. The ger was united to his hosts by close ties. His legal status and personal safety depended upon their protection, and they were bound by th» sacred obligations of Eastern hospitality to care for hini as for one of their own kin. He was entitled to the Sabbath rest (Ex 20'"), and to eat the passover if he became circumcised (Ex 12). See Gkr, Strangek. (g) Slaves. — The slave was substantially one ^. the family. The master's authority over him did not differ essentially from that over wives and children, and the wife was purchased like the slave. Conversely, a female slave might become a con- cubine, and a male might marry his master's daughter (1 Ch 2"- ^), or become his heir (Gn 15'). Slaves were circumcised and ate the passover. The yilidh bayith, or home-born slave, would have the closest, and the purchased Isr. slave, who had to be released at the end of six years, the loosest ties to his master's family. We gather, however, from Jer 34" that the custom of releasing Isr. slaves was not strictly observed. See Slave. iii. Mutual Responsibility. — In primitive times the family, in a narrower or wider sense, was the efficient social organization ; and such functions of modem government as were discharged at all were represented by the mutual claims and duties of kinsfolk. Many laws and customs of Isr. are a legacy from this primitive system. In ancient times the only protection for life or pro- perty lay in men's willingness to defend and avenge their kinsmen. This right and duty is still recognized in OT ; the next-of-kin, go'el, must punish his kinsman's murderer, marry his widow if the deceased was childless, and may inherit his property. See GoEL, and section on Levirate Alarriage under Marriage. One would sujipose that this strong sense of family duty would have led kin.sfolk to provide for destitute relatives. But men were often obliged to sell themselves or their children for slaves, and widows and orphans are constantly spoken of as poor, helpless, and oppressed. Douotless, the ordinary calamities —drought, dearth, famine, pestilence, inva.sion — would often ruin whole clans at the same time ; but it is also clear that family feeling was no adequate substitute for legal provision for the poor. iv. Family Religion.— As the nation had its religious symbol of circumcision, its siinctuaries, sacrifices, priests, and festivals, so the family had its special sncra. According to Benzinger, 137, and Nowack, 154, following Stade, etc., the Israelite family was es.sentially a society bound together by common religious observances, Cultgenossenschnft. Thus, in the patriarchal narratives, the patriarchs, as head of the family, erect altars and offer sacri- fices ; similarly, the passover was a family rile, ob.served in the home, often, of course, temporary. In 1 S 20^ we read of clan-sacrifice, zclmh mish- piiifuih, at Bethlehem. The family burying place IS sacred (Gn 23). Benzin^'er and Nowack see in the cutting off of the hair and the self-mutila- tion forbidden in Dt W-, Lv 19" *, remains of ancient ancestor worship ; cf. the practice of necromancy (1 S '28). Teraphim are usually under- stood to have been images or symbols of ances- tors. In later times the instruction directed to lie given in Dt 6 would be matter for tlie family ; and the regulations as to ceremonial cleanness 850 FAMILY rAi\[INE tended to make the whole personal and family life a conticuous series of religious observances. The later system, however, diflered from the former in that in primitive times each family had rites peculiar to itself, in later times all families practised the same rites. V. Early History of the Family.— Under the monarchy, the family was constituted under the headship of the father, who was supreme over wives and ehUdreu, and primogeniture was recog- nized in the transmission of authority (royal, priestly, etc.) and property. The Hex. traces these institutions back to the origin of the human race in Adam and Eve ; at the same time it pre- serves many incidents which have been held to point to an altogether different state of affairs in early times. It is maintained by W. R. Smith and others that the head of the family was origin- ally the mother (mother-right, matriarchate), and that descent was traced only through the mother. Marriage was then polyaiidrous (of which the levirate marriage is supposed to be a relic), and be'ena marriage, in which the man becomes one of the wife's family, and goes into her tent (cf. § 7 and Gn 2^), as opposed to ba'al marriage, where the wife enters her husband's luuiilj'. This view is based partly on parallels amongst other primitive peoples, and esp. amongst the Arabs ; and partly on various traces in OT, some of which have been already mentioned. In con- nexion with this theory, it has also been main- tained that exogamous totem, clans existed in ancient Israel. Such clans are united by the use of a common badge, connected with some animal or plant after which the clan was named ; inter- marriage between members of the clan is regarded as incest, and the totem may not be eaten. One example cited is the clan Caleb (dog), the dog being unclean (Dt 14- '), and its flesh forbidden food. Even if it should ultimately be proved that such theories are partly true, it is clear that be'ena marriages and totemism were obsolete and for- gotten in historic Israel, and that they can be traced only in customs whose original significance was no longer understood. vi. The Family in Apocr. and NT. — Throughout the Bible, but esp. in the later books of OT, in Apocr., and in NT, the sacred history refers incidentaJly to the family institutions of numerous Gentile nations; but any general treatment of these would be beyond the scope of biblical archse- ology. Various subjects raise special questions of this nature, and these are dealt with in the articles on those subjects. Our data do not point to any re|;\ilar develop- ment in the later history of the Jewish family. Its character and principles were as permanent as social institutions mostly are in the East. I'^eatures of OT family life reappear in Apocr., NT, and Talm., and still persist amongst modern Arabs and Syrians. The family history of the Herods is very smiilar to that of David. The Pent. — some of whose laws embody the most primitive customs of Israel — remained to the last the authoritative code of Judaism. Probably, however, much of the Pent, legislation was always a mere counsel of perfection, and other portions were obsolete in NT times. Often discussions in the Talm. are purely academic arguments on regulations which had no bearing on actual life. Hut if there was no continuous development of Jewish life, it would still vary with varying :!ircum3tances. For instance, under a strong, well- organized government, like that of some of the Jewish kings, of the Herods and the Komans, the jurisdiction of the head of the family and private blood-revenge would be controlled and limited. The eettleroent of a large Gentile population in Pal., and the dispersion of the Jews throughout the ancient world, would sometimes modify, sometimes also accentuate, the observance of Jewish customs. Probably, Western influences reinforced the tend- ency to monogamy, which we have already noticed in OT. It is doubtful whether 1 Ti 3- ", Tit 1« inculcate monogamy, cf. 1 Ti 5'. Our Lord's limitation of divorce (Mt 5'^- ^) followed the teach- ing of Shammai. Literatcrh.— For the early history of the family, W. R. Smith, Eijuhip and Marria'je in Larly Arabia, and 'Animal Worship and Animal Tribes among the Arabs and in OT ' in Joum. of Philology, vol. ix.; J. F. M'Lennan, Primitive Marriage, and the essay on 'Totem-Clans in OT ' in Joseph Jacobs' Studie in Bibl. Archaeology ; Bertholet, IKc Steltung d. Isr. u. Jud. z. d. Fremden, esp. pp. 1-80. For the Bible history, the sectioon on the Family, and the laws of Marriage, Divorce, Parents and Children, etc., in Ewald, Atterthiimer^ (Eng. tr. The AtU. o/ Isr. from Ist ed. 1844) ; Keil, Uaiidb. der Bibl. Arch.^ 1876 ,• Benzinger, Heb. Arch. 1894 ; Nowack, Lehrb. dtr Eeb. Arch. 1894 ; J. F. McCurdy, Hint. Proph. and the MonumenU, ii. 86-77 ; Dillmann and Driver on the passages from Pent., for OT ; Schurer, HJP. for NT ; also art. in Herzog's RE ; Schenkel'l Bibetlex. ; Riehm's HWB. W. H. BENNETT. FAMINE (3!n, X(/t4s) in Syria and Egypt in past times may be attributed to four causes — i. Want of water, i.e. rainfall or inundations, in due season. ii. Destruction of corn and fruit by hail and rain out of season. iii. „ of all growing crops by locusts and caterpillars. iv. „ of fowl supplies by the hand of man. i. Owing to the want of water in due season the famine might be widespread in extent, but in other cases it would be only partial and local. In the train of famine always comes sickness, which develops into pestilence and other scourges accord- ing to the intensity of the want and privation to which the people and flocks and herds are sub- jected. In prehistoric times famines may have been due to a failure of rain at any time of the year, as the people were dependent upon the spon- taneous vegetation for the sustenance of them- selves, their herds, and their flocks ; but, after agriculture was introduced, the severity of famines could be much mitigated by storing up reserves of com, thus enabling the bulk of the people to live independently of their herds and flocks ; and famines would result more from the failure of rain in due season, that is to say, at the time when it w as re- quired for the early growth of the com. For the plenteous years cf. Lv 26"- ' Then I will give your rains in their season, and the land shall yiela her increase, and the trees of the field shall 5rield their fruit. And your threshing shall reach unto the vintage, and the vintage shall reach unto the sowing time ; and ye shall eat your bread to the full, and dwell in your land safely.' The opposite condition of things is described in Lv 26"^ 'Ami I will make your heaven as iron and your earth a-s brass ; and your strength shall be spent in vain : for your land shall not yield her increase, neither shall the trees of the land yield their fruit.' In countries which depend upon the natural rainfall for the growth of cereals, and not upon irrigation and inundations, recurrence of rain in due season is a matter of the utmost importance ; and scarcity of wheat and barley may be due, not to any want of rain, but to its fall at a wrong season — for example, in summer time, instead of during the winter and spring. The Wilderness of the Wanderings or Desert of Arabia Petnea, in common with those east of Pal., differs preatly from Syria and Egypt in its food supplies ; but it is only m comparison with the extraordinary fertility of Syria and Egypt that it can be con- sidered as a desert. It has, from the earliest time, con.'^isted of arid tablehuida. mountainous districts, and sandy diuiea, intersected by fertile valleys and plains and cultivable table- lands, and ita present parched and barren condition is due in a great measure to the action of the Turkish Government in drawing a revenue from the destruction of trees. There are in all directions ruins of vineyards and terraces on th slopes of hills, indicating former cultivation ; and there are yet table- lands where corn is cultivated, and plains where there are thousands of date trees. The nomadic tribes do not exist i-AMLNK FA3UXE 851 ■olely on the produce of their herds and flocks, but from the earliest historic times have used com for food, and have cultivated com for themselves, either in conjunction with neighbouring villages or by means of slave labour. There is a ■canty herb:ie at all times over a great portion of this wilder- ness, and in Januar>- and February water and (rrasses are found ever>'A«'here, and the Uocks can roam about at wilL During Novemtier, l>eceml>er, and March there are dense mists and fogs and heavy dews, which saturate the shrubs and even deposit moisture on the rocks, so that flocks do not require to go to water. These mists depend upon the direction of the wind, and alternate with intense droughtA. As the sunmier advances the pasture is confined principally to the brood water-courses, which give t'O-id herbage for many weeks : as the drou;;ht increases the inhabitants are reduced to great straits. ha\ing to live with their (locks on pastures many miles (sometimes twenty miles) trom water. The flocks are driven over to the water once or twice a week, and a small quantity is brought back for the use of the encampment. These nomads and their flocks are of the most hardy nature, and can go without water for many hours or even for days ; but they live for a portion of each year on the border- land of famine, and a ver>' little extra scarcity brin^ on such want and privations that they, with their flocks, either move on to more favoured localities or die. Egypt has always been remarkable for its ex- treme fertility, and is well watered everywhere (Gn 13'°). It is not directly dependent on rainfall, the annual flooding ot the river Nile inundating nearly the whole land and making the cultivation of the soil, a-x a general rule, a yearlj' certainty : a land where ' tliou sowedst thy seed, and wateredst it witli thy foot, as a garden of herbs' (Dt 11'°). These inundations are cau.sed bj the rainfall over the districts where the Nile rises, and they fail at rare intervals. This expo.ses the land to drought, and famine ensues from want of com, and in a minor degree the pasturage also fails. The extraordinary fertility of the Promised Land is constantly alluded to in the Bible : ' a land of hills and valleys, and drinketh wat«r of the rain of heaven' (Dt U"). ' I \N-ill give the rain of your land in its season, the former rain, and the latter rain, that thou mayest gather in thy corn, and thj' wine, and thine oil ' (v.'). Its soil is of a very rich description, and formerly clothed the hillsides in terraces, though now, for the most part, it lies at the bottom of the valleys. Although Pal. has been dependent mainly on its rainfall, its streams have been utilized largely for irrigation purposes in the plains and in the Jordan Valley, and on the banks of the Jordan itself the rich soil is subject to inundations in the sprinj; (Jos 3"). The first famines mentioned in the Bible are those which occurred in the times of Abraham and Isaac (Gn 12'° 26'). In the first case, Abra- ham went down into Egypt to sojourn there ; in the second case, Isaac was about to do the same, but, being warned by God, went to Gerar to reside with Abimelech, king of the PhUistines. It rii.iy be a.ssumed that these famines were only partial in their extent. The famine which took place in the time of Jacob was one of great extent, as it included Syria, Egypt, and the sources of the Nile, and was one of great severity and long duration ; it is recorded that ' there was famine in all lands ' (Gn 41"). It lasted seven years, and was remark- able as having been preceded by seven years of plenty, which being foretold by .Joseph, the Egyp. Government was enabled to gather up sufluicnt corn, not only to buy up all the lands and cattle of the Egj'ptians and to supjily the people, but also to sell com to foreigners. ' And all countries came into Egypt to Joseph for to buy com ; because the famine was sore in all the earth' (Gn 41"). It is to be noted, however, that tliis is a famine re.strictcd to want of com, and that there is no indication that there was great want of pa.sturage. The .fons of .lacob were able to take their a.xses to and from Egj-pt without dilliciiltj-. Wag;,'on8 were sent to bring up Jacob and his households. •And their father Israel said unto them. If it be so now, do this ; take of the choice fruits of the land in your vessels, and carry down the man a present, a little balm, and a little honey, spicery, and mj-rrh, nuts and almonds' (Gn 43"). 'And they took their cattle, and their goods, wliich they had gotten in the land of Canaan, and came into Egypt' (Gn46«). I'amines are mentioned in the time of the judges (Ru 1'), and in the time of king David (2 S 21'), but it is not until the time of Elijah that any account is given of the failure of the pasturage and springs. 'Theie shall not be dew nor rain these years, but according to my word' (1 K 17'). ' And Ahab said unto Obadiah, Go through the land, unto all tne fountains of water, and unto all the brooks : peradventure we may find grass and save the horses and mules alive, that we lose not all the beasts' (18'). Amongst the signs of the end in Jesus' eschatological discourse are ' famines in divers places' (Mt 24', Mk 13', Lk21"). For the famine referred to in Ac 11^, see Claudius. ii. A graphic description of destruction of crops by hail is given Ex 9^- "• '" ' The LORD sent thunder and hail, and fire ran down unto the eartli ; and the LORD rained hail upon the land of Egj-pt.' ' And the tiax and the barley were smitten, for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was boiled. But tne wheat and the spelt were not smitten ; for they were not grown up.' The unusual occurrence of thunder and rain in the time of wlie.it harvest is accentuated in 1 S 12". iii. The eflect of tlie destruction of crops by plagues of locusts is depicted Ex 10" ' For they covered the face of the whole earth, so that the land was darkened ; and they did eat every herb of the land, and all the fruit of the trees which the hail liad left ; and there remained not any green tiling, either tree or herb of the field, through all the land of Egypt.' Again, Jl l* ' That which the palmer-worm hath left hath the locust eaten ; and that which the locust hath left hath the canker-worm eaten ; and that wliich the canker- worm hath left hath the caterpillar eaten.' (See Driver, ad loc.) iv. The most terrible results of famine related in the Bible are due to the hand of man ; and this was well recognized by king David. 'And David said unto Gad, I am in a great strait ; let us fall now into the hand of the LoliD ; for his mercies are great: and let me not fall into the hand of man^ (2 S 24'^). ' And he shall eat the fruit of thy cattle, and the fruit of thy ground, until thou be destroyed : wliich also shall not leave thee com, wine, or oU, the increase of thy kine, or the young of thy flock, until he have caused thee to perish ' (Dt 28"). ' And thou shalt eat the fmit of thine own body, the llesh of thy sons, and of thy daughters, which the Lord thy God hath given thee, in the siege, and in the straitness, wherewith thine enemies shall straiten thee' (v."). 'And there was a great famine in Samaria : and, be- hold, they besieged it, until an ass's head was sold for fourscore pieces of silver, and the fourtli part of a cab of dove's dung for five pieces of silver ' (2 K 0-°). 'Aiid.->iie answered, 'l^iis woman said unto me. Give thy son, that we may eat him to-day, and we « ill eat my son tonionow ' (v.^). Joscjihus, in his Antii/iiitics and Wars of the Jews, gives several accounts of tlie horrible atroc- ities which took place during the famines in besieged cities, but in no account does he give such distressing details as in the story of the last siege of Jerus. by Titus, in which lie sums up that ' neither did any other city ever suller such miseries' {Wnrs, V. x. 6). This account of Jose- phua is considered to be a descrijition of the ful- filment of the prophecy by our Lord (Mt 24' ), ' For then shall ue great tribulation, such as hatk 852 FAMISH FAEE, FAREWELL not been since the beginning of the world until now, no, nor ever shall be,' and is the history of the last famine connected with the Bible. In the Bible there is no allusion to horrors and privations due to famine such as occur periodi- cally in the world at the present time in the over- crowded portions of China and India. C. Warren.