Food (Hastings' Dictionary)

I. The material eaten for the sustenance of the body is often mentioned in the Bible, in AV most commonly as bread, but often as meat, occasionally as food or victuals. Sjk3 ma'akhrd, or victual in general, is used about 29 times, always in its literal sense ; unh lehem, literally bread, is used for food in general about 230 times, and is often used figuratively (see Bread). "?;."

< 'okhel is used 42 times for food or ^actuals in the literal sense, and the cognate 'okhlah is used by Ezekiel for fuel, in the sense of food for the fire. In the NT fSpwfia is the word used 17 times, and Tpotp-q 16 times, ^p^ai^ is used 4 times bj' St. John and 5 times in the Epistles, often in a metaphorical sense. The commonest metaphorical uses are (1) that wliich refreshes the soul, doing the will of God, .In 4''' ; and in a cognate sen.

se Christ our Saviour is the food of the soul, Jn 6" ; (2) advanced doc- trinal teaching, 1 Co 3S He 5'; (3) mere cere- monial observances, He 9'° 13 (for other usea see IJRKAI)). 11. Foodstuffs.— Accordingto Gn l^theoriginal food of mankind consisted of fruits and seeds wliich the earth produced naturally. In this rcs])cct man resembled tliose of the higher mammals which are most nearly allied to liim in structure, which arc for tlie most part herbivorous and frugivorous.

After the primary dispersion tlie siioils of the cha,se were added to the primitive dietary even from the earliest times, for the broken bones of wild animals and the shells of molluscs which had served a.s food are among the earliest traces of primeval man as yet discovered. There were mighty hunters even before Nimrod (Gn 0" lO*), and implements of the chase were among the first of man's inventions.

In process of time, as agricultural and pastoral industries developed, tlie produce of the tilled field and of the herd and tlock supplied men with additional food-stutis (Gn 4- »• ■'• '*). The ex- pression of the divine sanction for these additions, recorded in Gn 9^ seems to have for its special object the injunction of the taboo concerning the eating of blood. A. The inhabitants of the Bible lands lived chiefly on vegetable food.

At tlie present day, bread, olives and oil, butter, milk, and cheese, fruit and vegetables, with meat on special occasions, or in particularly wealthy households, make up the dietary of most of their descendants in the East (Thomson, i. 98). The stai}' of life was, and is, bread made of cereal grains, especially wlieat, millet, dhClrah, and barley, to which is now added rice, unknown in Bible times (see Bread).

(a) Parched corn is 5 times mentioned as an article of diet, and is coupled with bread in Lv 23'''. One form of this, called -'i; (k&li), was made of the common, nearly ripe wheat by heating the grain on an iron ' girdle ' (Lane, i. 251 ; Robinson, ii. 50), or by binding the ears into wisps and roasting them over the fire (ib. iii. 393). In Arabic kali means anything done in the frying-pan, and the material of the parclied corn may be meal, or polenta, or flour, or else the unground grain.

It is a common food of labourers (Ru 2'''), and is sold ready ]irepared in Eastern towns as a convenient food for travellers. Da\nd brought 3 pecks of it to his brethren at Elah (1 S 17") ; and Abigail brought 5 pecks to David's men (1 S 25'*). In Lv 2''' ' green ears of com dried by the fire ' are mentioned, and in Lv 23''' these are coupled -nith parched com. This form is made, according to Abu'l Walid, of finer garden wheat, which is called ^j-)3 karmel (2 K 4^-).

In RV this is called ' bruised corn of the fresh ear,' alluding to its being beaten in a mortar (Pr 27-'^). When this bruised corn was dried in the sun it was called niDT rlphCth (Pr 27", 2 S 17"), Grain of this kind was used to cover the well in which Ahiniaaz and Jonathan were hidden at Bahurim (LXX iparfiuS, Vulg. siecans ptisnna). The flour and parched corn of 2 S \T^ is called S.\(vpov Kai dXipirov, flour and polenta or meal in LXX (see Herod, vii. 119).

'AX0ITOC is used in Homer for barlej'-meal only, but Hippocrates uses this word for meal in general. For classic and Hebrew usage of polenta see Gruner, de ohlatione Primitiarum, in Ugolini, vol. xvii. Rojle has contended that kali is not corn, but some leguminous plant, as kalce is the Hindi for pulse ; but R. Salomon in his Commentary on Aboda Zara says tliat there are two kinds — one of corn and one of cicer or lentiles. For mention of parched peas see Plautus, Ban-fi. iv. 5.

7, and Horace, de art. poet. 249. Robinson speaks of a variety of this parched corn wliich is first boiled, then bruised in a mill to take oil' the husk, then dried ; this is named burgoul (ii. 394). According to Burckhardt, burgoul is wheat boiled witli leaven and dried in the sun, cooked by being boiled with butter and oil. It is the common dish with all classes in Syria (Notes, i. 59). (b) The leguminous plants, beans and lentiles, form an important part of the diet of the Western Asiatics.

These were probably included in the D'jni zeri'i'im, or pulse of I)n 1'^, which was despised but sufficient nourishment (v.'"- '*) ; in Tlieod. the word is (Ttr/pfrnTa (LXX tairpia, RVm lierbs), which meant any vegetable food ; see the name of the herbseller in Aristopli. Lysist. 457. In 2 S 17" the word pulse is not in the Hebrew. Lentiles (cv^i, 'itdashim, LXX ^oicrfs), the seeda of Ervum lens, which is still, as formerly (2 S 23''), cultivated in Palestine, and used as food (Thomson, i.

253 : Burckhardt, Arabia, i. 65). There are two varieties, one pale red the other dark brown, and the pottage made by boiling either of these is savoury (Gn 25**), pleasant to the taste, and red, hence Esau called it ' the red, this red ' (see incident in Diog. Laert. vii. 3). In Egypt lentiles were called arSana (Pap. Anastasi, iv. 15), and in Assyria a'ssu. In Greece they were used as food by the poor (Aristoph. Plutus, 1004-5 ; and I'herecrates,a/). Athen. iv. p. 159).

The Komans regarded lentiles as an Egyptian plant (Virg. Ge.org. i. 228 ; and Martial, Epig. xiii. 9), and they were sometimes used as a bread-stuff (Athenoeus, Deipnos, iv. 158 ; Bee also Ezk 4'). An allied species of vicia is used as a camel-food by the Arabs, and called kersenna (Robinson, ii. 83). Lentile Hour is sold in this country under the name ' revalenta.' Lentiles were Drought by Barzillai to David in exile (2 S 17^).

Pottage is sometimes made by boiling the lentiles with meat, more commonly a little suet is added to the water when boiling (Kitto). Beans ('?i3 pol, LXX KvaiMs), the seeds of the common bean, Faba vulgaris, are also used in Palestine for food, especially by the poor. The bean is originally a native of Persia, and was some- times used as a bread-stuff, as it is still in Savoy and other parts of Europe (Ezk 4"; Pliny, xviii. 12); it is sometimes eaten parched or roasted (Theo- critus, Id. 7.

65 ; Robinson, iii. 87). Food of this kind was brought to David in exUe (2 S 17^, but LXX omits tlie parched pulse). More commonly, beans are boiled in oil witli garlic (Shaw, Travels, i. 257) or in water, and made into pottage, with or without meat ; sometimes they are eaten with butter and pepper. Robinson describes raw beans, soaked in water until they sprout, as part of the Lenten fare of the monks at Mount Sinai (i. 259).

In Egypt beans were used, and have been found some- times in mummy cases ; they were called kat'a, art, and sometimes pir, but the last was probably the bean of the Nelumbium lotus, and kat'a is tr. by Lieblein the Opuntia fruit. Birch and Eisenlohr tr. khep in the Harris papyrus as ' bean ' ; if so, they formed a part of the ottering to Ptah ; although Herodotus says that they were not eat«n in Egypt, and were accounted impure (ii. 37).

For similar prejudices against beans, see Porphyry, de Absti- nentia, i. 26 ; Diog. Laert. viii. 19 ; Clement Alex. Strom, iii. , and other authors. The high priest was forbidden to eat beans and lentUes on the day before the great Day of Atonement (Gemara, Jama, i. § 4), and the Flamen Dialis was forbidden to eat them also, as they were thought to dull the senses and cause disturbing dreams. For other superstitions concerning beans see Pliny, xviii. 12.

Husks («p<iTia) in the parable of the Prodigal Son (Lk 15'°) are the dark purple horn-like pods of Ceratonia siligua, the charrub tree of the Arabs and of the Talmud. This is a large handsome spreading tree common in Mediterranean countries, whose sweet, fleshy pods, the caroba beans of the Italians, are used as food by the poor (Robinson, ii. 250). In Greece and Italy they were used by the Stoics as a disciplinary food for youths (Persius, iii. 55 : Juv. xi. 58), and Horace s reference, Ep. n.

i. 123, is well known. In Palestine, where the tree is fairly common, the beans are used as cattle food (Shabbath, xxiv. § 2), and are occasionally mentioned in the Talmud (see Maimon. in Denial, iL § 1, and Buxtorf, *.«.) Pliny refers to their use in feeding swine (xv. 24 ; see Columella, vii. 9), and in Italy they are thouglit to give a sweet taste to the animal's flesh. They are imported into this country, and are sometimes called 'locust-beans' or St.

John's bread, from a mistaken notion that they were the ixplSa of Mt 3^ Steeped in water they are used to make a pleasant, sweetish drink (see Pliny, xiii. 16 and xxiii. 8). Fitches in Ezk 4' (knssemoth) were cereal grains, probably spelt (see BREAD). The same word in AV of Is 28^"-'' is in Heb. nsi5 kezah, LXX neKaveiov, and signifies the black cummin, which is the seed of a ranunculaceous plant, Nigella saliva, a native of the Eastern Mediterranean countries.

These seeds are beaten out of the pod-like follicles with a matteh or stall', and sprinkled on bread as a car- minative, as we use caraway seeds (Pliny, xix. 7). They have a hot but not unpleasant taste. The plant is called kizah by the Arabs and kuzatu in the Assyr. plant list, and in Vulg. is named git. For references to the use of these seeds, see Plautus, Rudens. v. 2, 39 ; Ausonius, 344, 8 j Dioscorides, iii. 83 ; Pliny, xix. 8, xx. 17, etc.

(c) Of cucurbitaceous plants, melons, cucumbers, and gourds are mentioned in the Bible. The two former are fruits much relished in Egypt (Nu 11»). Cucumbers (d'nb'p kishshu'lm, LXX aUvot.) are the fruit of Cucumis c/iate (the khnta of the Arabs) and C. sativua, tlie common cucumber.

Both species grow freely in Egypt (Nu 11') and in Palestine, and, according to Kitto, are eaten by all classes to an extent that would scarcely be credible in this country ; and Forskal says this is the commonest fruit in Egypt (Fl. Mgypt. 168). Finn speaks of Arabs eating cucumbers by the wavside for refreshment (Bijeways in Palestine, 2). Robinson saw fields of them (iii. 344), and Thomson describes a garden of cucumbers with a booth for a watch- man (Is 1*).

As birds do not eat them, a scarecrow is useless in such a place (liar 6™). In Assyr. they are called kissu and in Egyptian skhcptu. Hippo- crates speaks of them as eaten when green (de Vict. Ratione, ii.) The fruit of the chati is longer and greener than the common cucumber. They are often eaten with vinegar or bread, or filled with mince-meat and spices. Tristram notes Arab chU- dren bringing to school as their dinner barley-bread and cucumber, which they ate rind and all.

Forskil describes the method whereby a delicious drink is made from its juice. Melons ( d-jibsk 'dbattihtm, LXX viiroves, Nu 11'), called by the Arabs battikh, are grown and used abundantly both in Egypt and Palestine. Both the water-melon (Citrullus vulgaris) and the flesh- melon (Cucumis melo) are cultivated, and both were probably included under this name. The Talmudists distinguish these, calling the former melapepon and the latter '(tbattihim (Maaseroth, i. § 4 ; Terumoth, viii.

§ 6 ; Chilaim, i. S 2), but in Aruch they are both known by their Heb. name. It is singular that in Coptic they are called by their Greek name. Wild Gourd (nj;i??), in plural pSkaim, 1 K 6'« 7", or pakkudth, 2 K 4**, tr. in former passage ' knops,' in the latter ' wild gourd,' is the fruit of the vine- like Citrullus colocynthis, which is common in the Jordan Valley. ' To human nature it is of so mortal bitterness that little indeed, and even the leaf, is a most vehement purgative.

They say that it will leave a man half dead, and he may only recover his strength by eating flesh meat ' ( Doughty, i. 132). It is very rare in the hUl-country of Epliraim, hence the son of the prophet who gathered it did not know the plant, but mistook it for the non-poisonous Cucumis prophetaru-m or globe cucumber common in Samaria. In an Arabic version of La 3'° the text is rendered ' he hath sated me with colocynth,' so proverbial is its bitter- ness.

Its elegant shape suggested its imitation in the ornamenting of the carved panelling of the temple and of the edge of the molten sea. xn AssjT. it is jiikkuti. Jonah's Gourd (fi'ij'p kikdydn, LXX Ko\oKvrBif) was supposed from the likeness of the name to the Egyptian kiki (Herod, ii.

94) to be the Bicinus communis, the Palma Christi or castor-oil plant, a rapidly -growing herb which Pliny describes as becoming almost tree -like and capable of afl'ord- ing shade ; even in our gardens its growth under favourable conditions is extraordinarily rapid. It is not quite clear what the kiki of the hieroglyphic texts was, as ricinus is in Coptic called jismis, which represents the ancient form kesmes or kesbet. Maimonides in Shabbath, ii.

1, says, however, the oil of kik is from a plant called by the Arabs kkerua, which is ricinus. Tristram objects to this identification, as the ricinus is not a climbing plant, but the passage in Jon 4' does not describe it as such ; he supposes the plant to have been the roof- gourd or Lagenaria vulgaris of which Pliny states that ' shooting upwards with the greatest rapidity it soon covers the arched roofs of houses and trellises ' (xix. 24). The Vulg.

renders it hedera or ivy, and this occasioned a controversy between Jerome and Augustine (see Hieron. in Jon 4* and Epist. 89). In early Christian art the plant is fancifully represented as a trailing melon-like plant covering a trellis-work, as on the sarcophagus m the Lateran from St. Peter's crypt (Parker's Photog. No. 2905; see also Bellorius, de Antiq. Lucernis, pi. iii. fig. 30, for a representation on a lamp). An undetermined species of climbing plant in Assyrian was called kakulla.

{d) i)l alliaceous vegetables there are three mentioned as favourite foods of the Israelites in Egypt — onions, leeks, and garlic (Nu IP). All these are still much cultivated in Bible lands, and are in constant use among Orientals either raw or cooked. Onions (c'^ya bezdlim, LXX Kpo/iiivof), the bulbs of Allium cepa. These are commonly eaten raw as a relish with bread, or boiled with meal (Robin- Bun, ii. 211), or with lentiles (Terumoth, x. 1; Martial, Epig. iii.

376), or with beef (Apicius, 224). By the Ass3Tians the onion was called sursu, and by the Egyptians het (Copt, mejol). Herodotus tells that on the casing of tlie great pyramid was inscribed the value of the onions, garlic, and radishes eaten by the builders (ii. 25). The later Latin writers say that the onion was deified by the Egj'ptians (Juv. xv. 9 ; Plut. de Iside, 353). Plinv (xix. 6) says that garlic and onions are invoked by thera when taking an oath ; and Lucian (Jup. Trag.

42) says that the inhabitants of Pelusium were especially devoted to this cultus. There is, however, no native evidence for this. Among the Greeks onions were highly esteemed, and Homer speaks of Hecamede giving Patroclus an onion as a relish (/Z. xi. 630) ; but Lucian describes them as food for the poor (Dial. Mer. 14. 2 ; Ep. Sat. 28). Leeks (Tsn hazir, LXX jrpdffa). The Heb. name u.

sed in Nu 11° literally means 'green herb,' and is rendered grass, hay, or green herb in 15 other passages ; but as these are not human food, the translators have here followed the LXX, leeks being supposed to resemble grass in habit and colour. Leeks are eaten raw with bread, or sliced and put into vinegar, or boiled in pottage (Arte- midorus, i. 67). Nero is said to have on stated dajy^s fed only on leeks and oil to improve his voice (Pliny, xix. 6).

The Egyptian leek was particu- larly esteemed by the Romans. It was known as aga (Copt, egi), while the Assyrians called it ezallu usuraiti. Ludolf translates /wci'r ' lettuce,' and Scheuchzer says that it probably means tlie Nclumbium lotii^ ; but the balance ot evidence is in favour of the common leek (Allitan purrum). Garlic {c-ef shAm, LXX uKopSov).

The cloves or bulbs of Allium sativum were so commonly used as flavouring that the Jews were reproaclicd for their liking for these strongly-scented herbs. In Shabbat Jehuda tl»>y are said to smell foully of garlic ; and Salomon Levi defends their taste lE Theriac. Jud. i. § 20. In Egypt this plant was, and is still, much used (Herod, ii. 125 ; Wilkinson, i. 169 ; Lane, i. 257).

Garlic was supposed to have the power of neutralizing the poison of the asp, and its use by penitent criminals was believed to purify them and absolve them of guilt. In Maaser sheni, v. § 8, garlic is called the ' Lord of tears.' At the present day it is much prized in the East as a remedy for many ailments and as an antidote for many poisons ; Pliny enumerates 61 ways in which it was recommended medicinally, and "Prudentius speaks of an altar to the garlic as being erected at Pelusium.

The Egyptians called it sesen (Copt, jgsere). Bitter Herbs (ditd mSrorim, LXX riKplScs, Vulg. lactuc(E agrestes) are mentioned in Ex 12*, Nu 9", and referred to in La3'''(EV 'bitterness'). Bitter salads are often eaten with meat in Egypt, Syria, and elsewhere, the commonest plant used for this purpose being the lettuce (Lactuca sativn), the dfa of tlie Egyptians, called by the Hebrews hazereth (probably the Assyrian haserottu). According to the rabbinical writers {Fesachim, ii.

§ 6), there were five bitter herbs which might be eaten with the paschal lamb : the endive [Lactuca endivia) was the second of these, called by them ulshin (probably the Assyr. harussu) ; it also is common in Egypt. The third is called thamkah, describeil by Maimon- ides as a garden endive, the cichorium of Pliny (xix. 6), but said in Aruch to be a carduus, in the Geiiiara to be a gingidium, probably the Artcdia squamata ol botanists, a bitter aromatic umbellifer- ous plant.

In Zematt David it is said to be a kind of helminthia which grows near date palms. The fourth, luirkabinti, was probably vmrrubium, or the horehound, but according to Lightfoot the beet ; and the fifth, maror, is called in Aruch a pot-herb, possibly Inula Helenium or Elecampane, which was a plant highly esteemed as a stomachic in the Regimen sanitatis of Salernum.

Maimonides says it was a bitter coriander, which, according to Varro, was often pounded, mixed ^vith ^'inegar, and sprinkled over meat ; but Lightfoot thinks that maror is horehound (Ministerium Templi, XIII. v. 2). It is probable that the words of the ordinance of the passover were not meant to specify any particular bitter herb. According to Fesachim, li. § 6, the herbs might be eaten fresh or dried, but must not be soaked, stewed, or boiled.

Delitzsch gives marru and muraru as the names of bitter garden plants {Assyr. Handworterbuch, 427). For Mandrakes see Mkdicixe. («) The fruits mentioned in the Bible are not very numerous. Almonds (IBS' shAkcd, LXX Kapvov) are mentioned in Gn 43" as part of the present sent by Jacob to the Egyptian viceroy. They are saiil not to be common in Egypt, and the Egyptian name of the fruit is doubttul.

Brugsch believes it to be the tree called net' ; but the Coptic uses the Greek name, which means any nut. According to Heracleon, Epicharmos, and Philyllius, ndpvov is specially used for the almond, the bitter almond being distinguished in Greek as xdpva iriKpd or a/ivydaXa (see Athenanis, Dcipnos, ii. 38). The almond was supposed to prevent the intoxicating ell'cct of wine, and wasconserjuently takun at wine banquets (Pliny, xxiii. 8 ; Plutarch, Quiist. Conviy. vi. 4).

This tree grows wild on Carmel and in Moab, and is cultivated extensively in Palestine. The llcb. name means ' hastener ' in reference to its early blossoming, hence the paronomasia in Jer 1". The blossoms, wliich look white at a distance, arc compared to grey l.air in Kc 12", ana their shajie was the pattern from wliich the clips of the seven-branched candlestick were miuie (Ex 25^").

Aaron's rod was probably an almond branch (Nu 17') ; but there was an old tradition that it was of storax wood, and tliat its bearing almonds was miraculous (see the verses falsely attributed to Tertullian, contra Marcion. iv. 117). In Gn 3')" the almond tree is named ii'? liiz, the word from which the old name of IJetliel was derived. Robin- son notes a sweetmeat made of a mixture of almonds and dates as a pre.sent given to distin- guished guests (i. 115).

Tlie ancient Medes mixed almonds with tlieir bread. Apples (n^Dn tiippiin/i, LXX n^Xov), mentioned in Ca2^'>7«8», Prt>5", Jl 1'^ cannot be the fruit to which we give this name, as it does not grow freely in Palestine, of which country it is not a native (see H. C. Hart, PEFSt, 188.">, isS). Thomson says that he has seen it growing luxuriantly (i. 17'2), but Tristram believes that he has mistaken the tree I.N.U. of ISiUe, 334).

Robertson Smith, on philological grounds, has defended the claims of the common apple (Pt/rus jnnliis) to be identified with the tnp/ji'iah, but its scarcity renders this verj' improbable {Jounwd of Philologi/, xiii. 1885, p. 65). Kitto believed it to be the citron, which now grows freely in Palestine, and is described in Jos. (.In*. XIII. xiii. § 5) as one of the trees whose boiiglis were used at the feast of Tabernacles; but the citron is a native of N.

India and China, and was iirohalily of late introduction. Tristram has claimed the apricot as the apple of Canticles. It is a very widely cultivated tree, but is a native of Armenia (hence called by Dioscorides ^^Xoi- 'ApfitviaKoy, IIP i. 160), and is probably also a late import. The characteristics suggested by the texts are — (1) a shadj' tree, (2) with golden coloured fruit, (3) which is fragi'ant, (4) and pleasant to taste, (5) and which is the symbol of love. All tlie.

se conditions are fulfdled by the quince. The tree is not very large, but it is one under whose shade one could sit or lie, as in the texts, and it is as suitable for this purpose as the vine or fig tree. Its fruit is extremely fragrant, and some varieties might be c.al'.ed golden by contrast if gathered in a silver liligree basket (Vr 25"). It is pre-eminently the fruit of love (see the mass of eWdence on this gathered in Celsius' Hicro- hotnnicon, i. 2.")5 If. ).

The quince is called ixfiXov without anj- adjective by some of the Greek authors (see, however, II. ix. 542, where t\\& iifjXov tree is called tall), and is the first of the apples described by Pliny (xxiii. 6). In the light of the description in the passage in Ca 8° the weight of evidence is in favour of regarding this tree as the quince, which, though unpleasing to the taste of most Europeans, is yet eaten with relish by many in the East, and esteemed most wholesome.

Athenaeus says that full ripe quinces are better food than any other kind of apple (Deipnos, iii. 20). For a discussion on the nature of the tapjniah, see Houghton, PSBA, 1889, 42. The quince has a special name in the Talmud, parish (see Kelaim, 1. 4), and in Arabic, which forms the basis of Robertson Smith's argument ; but in Jerus. Tal- mud, according to Abu'l Walid, parishim means asparagus; see Guisius, in. loco, CIdlaim (I. iii.)

A common tradition identifies the quince with the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Dates, the fruit or the date-palm, Phir.nix dacty- Hfern, though given in the AVm 2 Ch 31' as a possible translation of eyi debnsh (elsewhere rendered 'honey'), are not otherwise mentioned in the Bible.

This is remarkable considering how frequently palms are referred to, and it has been supjiosed that the word honey in the phrase so often used in the Pentateuch descriptive of Pales- tine may refer to dibs or date-honey made by boiling down the fruit. This sweetmeat was made in Babj'lonia where palms abounded (Herodotus, i. 193), and was also made at Jericho (Jos. BJlv. viii. § 3). LX.\ translates l"p in 2 S 16' (pohiKct, ' dates, and the palm is put niiiong the fruit trees in Jl 1'-.

As a cultivated tree the palm is little grown now in Palestine west of the Jordan. In Egypt the date-palm was called lini and bd, and dates benrd. In Assyria the date-palm wan ffisimmaru, and date- honey dispu. According to Doughty (i. 14S), there is no worse food than the date, and he reports the Arabs as saying that when the date is eaten alone human nature decays. For references to the palic in classical and Oriental literature, see Celsius, HiRrobot. ii. 445 ff.

Figs (ijKa ti'cndh, LXX ami)), the fruit of Ficua cnrica, next to the grape the most highly prized of all the fruits of Bible lands, and 53 times mentioned in the Bible. Mohammed says of it that if any fruit has really come from Paradise it must have been the fig. Botanically speaking, what is called the fruit is the soft fleshy receptacle within which are the flowers and later the grain-like, hard, dry achenes.

Hence the ancient authors speak of the fig tree as bearing fruit without flowers (Macrobius, Saturnrdia, ii. 16) ; but as the fig itself is the inflor- escence, the language of Hab 3'' is strictly correct. The buds or young figs appear before the leaves, hence a fig tree in full leaf should have its fruit developed. The precocious tree of Mt 21" and Mk 11" was therefore unnaturally barren. The fig tree bears every year (Thomson, ii.

101), but the Rabbinists speak of a variety called benoth shuah, which only brings forth fruit each third ye.ar (Maimon. Demai, i. 1, and Bartenora in Shebiith, V. V. 1), and it has been supposed that this is referred to in Mk 11". The manuring of such an unpromising tree is alluded to by Cato, as in the parable, Lk 13«. The first crop, called !ri«5 bikkilrAh, vpbSpoixoi, begins to redden in March and is ripe by June ; unripe figs are called o'j?

paggim (hence the place-name Bethphage, ' house of green figs '). LXX calls the unripe figs in Ca 2'^ (AvfdoL ; hut according to Theophrastus (vi. 8) and Hippocrates (574. 23) these are winter figs, which grow under the leaves and do not ripen. The early figs are the most delicious and refreshing (Is 28*, Jer 24-, Mio7', Hos9"), and are easily shaken oll'(Nah 3'=). See Macrobius, ii. 16. The untimely figs of Kev 6'^ are uli/nlhi.

The summer figs, rp (2 S 16'), ripen in August and September (see also Mic 7', Am 8'). These are either eaten fresh or dried in the sun [Shabbatk, viii. § 6), or made into cakes called c'^g^ debelhn (1 S 25" 30"', 2 K 20', 1 Ch V2^, Is 38-'). tu making these the figs are sometimes first beaten in a mortar, then pressed into acake(raanj<A,xxviii. 1). Thesecakes, called by LXX iraXidri, were either round or square (see Terumiith, iv. § 8; Baba mesia, ii.)

Herodotus uses the name iraKaO-q of other fruit cakes (iv. 23), but Athena;us distinguishes fig cakes as tt. ^vplaKn. Such cakes are still used by the Arabs (Burck- hardt, i. 51), and with barley-bread are the common food of poor travellers in the East. The town Beth-diblathaim means the house of the two cakes of figs. On the two crops of figs see the 5i06/joi/ ffuK^s of Arist. Eccles. 708. A third crop of winter figs appears in August, and ripens at the end of November.

These some- times hang on the tree when the leaves are shed, unless the tree be exposed to frost. Figs are liable to disease, both from parasitic fungi and from insects. There are several species of both, which attack the fruit and cause it to be shed prem.-iturely, or to shrivel and become uneat- able (Jer 24* 29"). For rellections on this vision see Hieron. Comment, in Jer., on 5H Sycomore Figs (i:pc', pi.

shihmim or shil;m6th in Ps 78*') are the small fig of the Fictis sycomortts, a bluish-purple fruit eaten by the poorer classes, but considered nnwholesorae and indigestible (Dioscor. 1. 182). The tree grows to a large size, and is found in Palestine in the lower lands from Joppa to Egypt (1 K lO^", 2 Ch 1"; see Bartenora in Shchiith, ix. 2). Jerome notes that they are easily killed by frost, and so they were destroyed by the «torm-plague in Egypt (Ps 78").

As in the hollow receptacle the flowers which bear stamens are at the upper and those bearing pistils at the lower part, it ensures fertilization to pinch or incise them, thereby facilitating the entrance of the insects whose movements in the plant promote fertilization ; this is known as caprihcation (Pliny, xiii. 14 ; Theophrastus, iv. 2). Amos calls himself a oVia bole^, or scratcher of sycoraore fruit, in allusion to this (LXX kvI^uiv avKi/um, RV 'dresser of sycomore trees ').

The superintendence of this was probably the function of Baalhanan (1 Ch 27"'*). This tree is abundant in Egypt, and of its wood most mummy coffins are made ; as its branches generally arise from the trunk low down, it is easily climbed (Lk 19''). The fruit was free from tithing among the Jews (Demni, i. 1). Mulberries (n;; bacn, LXX ffi'^d/ii^os) are not mentioned as fruit ; but as the tree is common in Palestine, and as the berries are now eaten freely, they were probably used in Bible times.

The trees are named in 2 S 5^'- and 1 Ch H'", and tlie place named from them ' Baca's vale ' in Ps 84''. Our Lord refers to the tree under the name sycamine in His lesson on faith (Lk 17*). For a description of the marvels of this tree see Pliny, xvi. 41, where it is described as being as remarkable as a creature posse.ssed of animation (see also xxiii. 7). Nuts (0M23 botnim, LXX Tep4jji.vdo$) are the fruit of the PUiaria vera.

This tree is a native of Syria, although not very abundant, and was brought into Europe by the Romans. The nut is the stone in the centre of the greenish drupe, and its kernel is oily, soft, and not unpleasant to taste. It is mentioned only in Gn 43". Die tree is often mentioned, but its name n^x 'cMA or 'el6n is trans- lated oak or teil tree, as Is 6" (RV terebinth tree). Olives (n'l zayith, LXX Aai'a), the same name for botli tree and fruit.

These are often mentioned in Scripture (37 times in OT and 18 in NT), and the Olca Europcea is a native of Palestine, and much cultivated for the sake of the oU extracted from its (Irupes. In Egj'pt tlie tree was called degam, and was esteemed in early days as a specific for all ailments (see Papyrus Ebers, p. 47 ; in the Harris Pap. it is called dcgetu). The tree is small, slow of growth, and irregularly branched.

Its wood is hard and fine-grained, and its leaves like those of a large privet, but whitish beneath. It has a small white flower growing in racemes, and its fruit is well known. The wild plants of the olive are sometimes used as stocks on which to graft cultivated varieties with larger fruit (Ro 11"). The low size of the tree made tlie olive leaf brought by the dove to Noah significant (Gn 8").

These trees are cultivated in orchanls or olive yards (Ex 23"); wlien ripe they are beaten (Dt 24^) in order to strike ott' the fruit (in la 17* and 24" badly tr. 'sliaken '), and the fruit is brought to the oil mills, which consist of circular stone basins in which the drui)es are crushed by a heavy stone wheel that is rolled over them.

The mass is then put into small wicker baskets, which are piled over each other in a m'azerah or handpress, in which they are squeezed either by means of a Ion" lever or a screw. The ancient presses were all lever presses. After the first pressing the pulp is put into copper pans, sprinkled with water and heated, and then pre.ssed again. Where there is water-power the press is larger, and the mill is called a mutriif; in this the olives are pre.

ssed in a •tone cylinder, within which an iron-shod shaft rotates. In old presses the pressure of the level was supplemented by heavy stones (Thomson, i. 286). The oil is allowed to stand until the sedi- ment subsides, and it is then poured oft"; sometimes salt is used to clarify it. Among those who have no oil pre.sses the Pulp is put in hot water and the oil skimmed oS". The fruit is sometimes kept until soft and black before crushing.

It is possible that in this state it may sometimes have been trodden by the feet, but that is never done now (Mic 6"). The oil is kept in cisterns of stone or cement (I Ch 27^), or in jars (khawabies) kept in cellars. For a description of the oil presses see Robinson, BRP iii. 365 ; and Thomson, Land and Book, ii. 286 ff. Gethsemane means an oil press. The oil of the olive was one of the most im- portant products of the Holy Land : corn, wine, and oil were its three staple crops.

' Certe oleo et vino gandebat Paloestina prae .<Egypto' (Reland, Palais- tina, ccclvii.) The oil is used in cookery (Lv 2^), and is spread on bread (Ex 29^), or burnt in lamps for lighting (Ex 25'), or used externally for anoint- ing. This use is referred to in Jothara's parable (Jg 9"). The excessive use of oil was a luxiir\' which brought men to poverty (Pr 21").

Olive oil is called n-t \'-^ shemen zayith ; the finer oil which runs out of pounded olives without compression is distinguished as n-ns kdthith (Ex 27-'", Lv 24- etc.) Olive oil was one of the exports from Judah to Tyre (Ezk 27"). Oil was occasionally caiTied as a part of their provisions by travellers (Lk 10*^). The olive tree is liable to a parasitic mould disease, a mildew which causes it to cast its fruit or makes its flower to shrivel (Dt 28", Job 15^).

It is also liable to be attacked by in.sects (Am 4'). The olive tree is used as a type of heavenly favour (Ps 52^ Hos 14", Jer 11"), and of family prosperity (Ps 128^). Oil is used metaphorically as expressive of divine grace (see ANOINTING) ; or the salutary reproof of the righteous (Ps 141°). The oil of joy is spoken of in Is 61', see Erman, p. 231. The oil tree, 'ezs!iemrn of Neh 8", 1 K 6^, Is 41'", is generally believed to be the zackum or Balanites ./Egyptiaca, a native of the .

Jordan Valley, and one wliose oil is esteeiiu'd as a useful medicine. Pomegranates (p":i rimmijn, LXX p4a), used both for the tree and the fruit. This is also an abundant fruit in Palestine, of which it is a native, and is mentioned 32 times in the Bible. Ponie^anat«3 were among the fruits brought back by tiie spies from E.shcol (Nu IS^). The tree {Punica granatum) grows to about 20 ft. in height, and has myrtle-like leaves and scarlet flowers, which come out early in the spring (Ca6").

The fruit is well known, and was a favourite with the Jews ; its bright colour is referred to in Ca 4'. Its sour juice was, and is, used in cookery (Russell, i. 85 ; Thomson, i. 286) ami in making cooling sherbet, as we use lemons. The juice is sometimes fermented (Dioscorides, v. 34), but the wine is rather tasteless unless spiced (Ca 8-). ' In this fruit Nature h.as shown to us a grape, and indeed not must, but wine ready made ' ( Pliny, xxiii. 6).

The pomegranate sujiplied a pattern for ornament (1 K 7'-", Ex 2S^. In RV 'pome- granates' in 1 K 7" is tr. ' jiillars'). Vines ([rj gephen ; in Nu %*, .Ig IS" \"y\ [rs gcphen hnyyayin, the wine-vine). The \'itis vhii/rra was the fruit tree most abundantly cultivated in Pales- tine and Egypt in ancient times. It is a native of tlie liill.v countries north of SjTia, but early spread along the shores of the Mediterranean.

(Irane kernels have been found in mummy cases of the 11th dynasty in Egj-pt, dating from about n.C. 2(100. A special varietv with liark red grapes ia called pii? wrek (Is 5^ Jer 2", Gn 49") ; these grapes liave very small kernels. Figuratively, the uiipruneil vine in the sabbatic year and jubilee is called T?) rxliir, being compareil to the uiitrimmed hair of the Nazirite. The colocynth plant in 2 K {^ is called ^ephen sSdeh, a vine of the fields.

A wild grape-vine bearing worthless grapes is called gephen nokr% in Jer 2^', ' the degenerate plant of a strange vine.' Palestine, especially in its hilly parts, ifl well suited for vine-growing — ' Apertos Bacchus amat coUes' (Virgil, Georg. ii. 113). The valley of Eshcol, named from its bunches of grapes, produced the CTeat cluster which the two spies carried home between them on a staff, Nu 13* (see Wagenseil, Sola, 709). Modem travellers have seen bunches of 10 to 12 lb.

in weight ; still larger bunches up to 19 lb. have been grown in this country under glass. The hills about Jezreel, where Naboth's vineyard was situated, were famous for their vines, as were the grapes of Ephraim (Jg 8=). The Moabite hills of Sibmah (Is 16- ', Jer 48^), and those of Heshbon and Elealeh, were also renowned, and those of Engedi (Ca 1") in Judah.

It was in the hUl-country of Judah that the s/jrck grew (Gn 49"), and the valleys of Sorek and Eshcol were named from these, as was Beth-haccherem, ' the house of vines,' near Tekoa (Jer 6'). A bottle of Bethlehem wine was a present fit for a king (1 S 16). Thewinesof Lebanon (Hos 14') and of Helbon (Alej)po) (one of the exports from Syria to Tyre, Ezk 21'") are also named (Robinson, jBJiP iii. 472). In preparing the vineyard, the stones had to be gathered out of the soU (Is 5^).

This is noticed by Cato {De lie Riistica, 46), who says that the vine- yard should be 'bipalio delapidato.' It needed also to be fenced with a hedge (Mt 21^^), a stone wall (Nu 22-^), or a ditch, to protect it from the wild beasts, such as jackals (Ca 2'°, Ezk 13*), boars (Ps 80""), and from robbers (Jer 49»). The favourite site was a hillside (Is 5^ Jer 31', Am 9"), and the plants are set about three paces from each other in rows (Robinson, ii. 80 f.)

When the vines grew up they were sustained on stout stakes, over which tlie branches were trained (Ezk 19"- '*). This was also tlie practice in Egypt; see Lepsius, Denkmalcr, ii. 53, 61. All these conditions may be observed to tills day, although the Mohammedan rule has dis- couraged viticulture in Palestine. There is usually a tower (-rupyo^) in a large vineyard, as described in Mt 21^, in which the watchers of the vineyard stay. Vineyards were called Ln Heb. m.s kerem.

In Am 5" tliis is coupled with ijn hemed, 'pleasant,' in Is 27^" with njn keener, ' of wine,' but "Targ. reads hemed here also, and LXX /taX6s. The towers in the vine- yards for the keepers or vine-dressers (o'D-ib) (Ca 1') are mentioned in Chilaim, v. § 3, but iii smaller vineyards they lived in booths (Is P).

The vine- yard must not be so-\vn with two kinds of seed, else the whole produce was forfeited as a c'lp kodesk, or sanctified thing (Dt 22") ; but trees of otter sorts, as fi" trees, might be planted in a vineyard (Lk 13", Mic 4''). Ramses lU. had olive trees in his large vineyard, which was called the 'spirit of Egypt.' P<^P- Harris, i. 8. 7. The vine-buds appear in March, and send out new branches, whicli are called D':i5' sariglm.

These are not tendrils, for in Gn 40>» they are described as bearing fruit ; when living, these new branches are green, but when the surface is eaten by locusts the skeleton branch looks white (Jl 1'). The tendrils are called D'^H zalzalltm in Is 18", or snlsillCth in Jer 6» (see Basket). The flowers appear in early AprU, and have a slight fragrance (Ca 2"-").

This was the time when the vines were pruned, hence it is said in the passage that in the spnn^-time the period of the tdi or pruning of vines (RVm) has come (so LXX, Aq. Synim. Targ. Vulg.) AV follows Parchon and Kimchi in rendering it ' the time of the singing of birds is come.' The reference to the pruning of vines in Jn 15' is familiar. • But Schrader (COT' IL 121) disputes the identiflcatioii. The grape (ajs 'endh) grows in cluBterg, which are named Si);y^ 'eshkol, LXX aratfivXi).

The fruit- bearing branch is in Nu 13" called rr^o\ zim6rdk, which IB the word used in the phrase descriptive of the worship of the sun in Ezk 8" ' they put the branch to tlie nose,' usually taken as referring to an old Persian custom of holding a bundle of vme- rods, called barsom, before the face of the priest when praying to the unextinguished fire of the Pyrretheia (Strabo, ed. Casaubon, xv. 733). For a different meaning see Tract Joma, 77*.

The ripening grapes are called idS fioyer in Is 18', and nearly the same word is used in Job 15". These are sour and set the teeth on edge (Ezk 18'V Sickly vines sometimes drop their grapes in thie stage (as in Job 15^*), the result of a blight. In Jnne or July the early grapes are ripe (Is 18'), and in September the vintage (T?;! bdztr) begins. This is a season of rejoicing, and during the grape-harvest the people live in booths in the midst of the vine- yards.

It has been conjectured that the ordinance of the Feast of Tabernacles was a mode of turning this custom to the service of religion. This vintage season was celebrated at Shechem (Jg 9"). The grapes are cut with a .^^P1D mazmerdh, or pruning hook (Is 2", Jl 3'°), which is called V35 rrutggAl, or sickle in Jl 3^', and are collected in baskets. Tliere was no vine-harvest in the sabbatic or jubilee year. For particulars on viticulture see Tliomson, The Grape Vine ; and Barron, Virte Culture.

The best grapes were dried in the sun into raising, which were compressed into pi'^x zimmuk, or cakes (Kimchi). Abigail brought 100 such cakes to David (1 S 25'), and David refreshed the fainting Egyptian with two such cakes (1 S 30"). Similar cjikes were brought by Ziba to David (2 S 16' ; see also 1 Ch 12). These raisins, as well as fresh grapes, were forbidden to the Nazirite while undei his vow.

To him all that comes of the grape, from the D'3s-;n harzannim, or kernels, to the Jj zag, or husks, was taboo (see Jg 13"). The rteiVN 'dsM- shSth, given by David to those who accompanied him in bringing the ark to Jerusalem (2 S 6", I Ch 16'), and tr. in AV 'flagons of wine,' were probably cakes of raisins, as in RV, which has made a similar change in Ca 2'. The reading in the AV is supported on Talmudic authority, but this rests on a very doubtful etymology.

For the use of these fruit-cakes by travellers see Russell, i. 82. Cakes of this kind were used as ofi'erings to Baal (Hos 3'). The grape gatherers were forbidden to glean, the nWSy 'dlelGth or gleanings being left for the stranger, the widow, and the fatherless. In the prophetic picture of rebellious Jerusalem as a vine, the fruit la described as being completely gleaned, the gatherer turning his hand baclc into the tendrils of the vine (Jer 6' ; see also Jer 49°).

A portion of the grape-harvest is used in making artificial honey or dibs, the juice expressed from the grape being boiled into a syrup, ' dulcis musti Vulcano decoquit humorem, et foliis undam trepidi despumat aheni' (Virg. Georg. L 295). The Heb. name is b^ji dibash, or honey, and it was an aiticle of commerce exported from Palestine to Tyre (Ezk 27"), and sent by Jacob to Egypt (Gn 43"). (See Dates, above.) Dibs forms 'a part of the food of the present inhabitants of Palestine ' (Thomson, i.

279 ; Russell, i. 82). It was, and is, the ordinary sweetener of cakes and pastry (Lv 2", Robinson, iii. 381). Alost of the crop was carried in baskets by girls and children to the wine-presses (see descrip- tion of the shield of Achilles, II. xviii. 562 IF.) These were cavities either hollowed out of the rock or built on the ground, and lined with masonry and cement (Mt 21^). Each press, called H! gath, LXX \rivbs, was made of two parts.

The upper was the nTs/jurdA (LXX TrpoMiviov), or wine- press proper (Is 63* 5^). From the bottom of this a pipe, •vjf zinndr, leads into the lower receptacle or ag' yckeb (LXX vTroXrjViov, the ' fat ' or vat of Jl 2-^ and 3'' as in Mk 12» AV, wine-press RV). The names yekeb or gath are used, however, for the whole wine-press. In Hag 2'° the purdh is called the press-fat (AV) or wine-fat (RV, see Aboda Zara, iv. 8). In these presses the grapes were trodden.

The whole process ia shown in several Egyptian pictures (Lepsius, ii. 13, 53, 9G, iii. 11'; Wilkin- son, i. 385), in one of which the treaders are repre- sented holding by cords from the roof over the pi'irdh. Sometimes flat stones are put over the grapes to assist the treading. The garments and feet of those treading are dyed Avith the ' blood of the grape' (Dt 32", Is 63»). As they trod they shouted (Jer 48^) and sang their vintage songs (Is le'").

It has been supposed that there is a line of one of these preserved ia Is 65* (see Smith, OTJC 209). The same customs are still observed wherever wine is made in the East (Robinson, i. 431 and ii. 81). The wine-press is a favourite figure with the prophets, typifying God's judgments on sin (Is 63', La V', Rev 14»). The first part of the mice which entered the yeA(;6 was the first-fruits {Ex 22^), and was offered to God.

In Egypt the residuum from the press is put into a sack and squeezed by wringing ; see Lepsius, ii. 53. There is no mention in the Bible of the subse- quent processes of wine-making, but probably the expressed juice was left in the 'fats' until fer- mentation had set in (Hag 2'), or put, as repre- sented in the E^ptian picture (WUtinsou, i. 385), into jars, or, when fermented, it was transferred for storage to large ox-skins.

These at the present day are kept ranged around the storehouse or cellar, which is called in 1 Ch 27" ["!i ns'm 'ozar hai/i/ayin. Bruce speaks of ox-skins capable of holding 60 gallons, and greased on the outside to prevent evaporation {Travels, iv. 334 ; see AthenKus, li. 28. Herodotus speaks of camel-skin vessels, iii. 9). When the deposit of the tartarous matter or lees (D"!

Cy' shlmarim, LXX rpvyias, 54|o, or ipiiXay/m) had taken place, the clear supernatant wine was poured off into a new vessel (Jer 48"), and this is the well-refined wine of Is 25'. In this passage shSmarim is used in alliteration with shSmdntm, ' fat things,' in the earlier clause. Drinking the lees is used allegorically in the sense of the bitter penal conse- quences of sin (Ps 75* ; see also Zeph 1'-, Jer 48").

Wine is known by nine names in the OT, but these do not necessarily mean different kinds. The varieties of wines are named from the locality of their production. Thus we read of the wines of Kerotim, Tolim, Bethrima, Bethlaba, and Signa as those suited for the service of the sanctuary (Menachoth, viii. 6). Other well-known wines were those of En-gedi, Acco, and Gaza. In Egypt the wines of Bubastis (Herod, ii. 126), of Sebcnnytus, and of Mareotis (Strabo, x\\\. 779 ; Athena'us, i.

33) were highly esteemed. Saronitic wine was so strong that it needed two parts of water to dilute it {Shnbbath, Ixxvii. 1), and Babylonian wine needed also to be diluted {Berachoth, i.) See Kimehi (Comm. on Hos 14'). The commonest word used for wine is I" yayin, a loan word from a non-Semitic root. This occurs 143 times, being first mentioned in connexion with Noali's drunkenness.

It is the word used for wine in the blessing of Jacob (Gn 49"- ") ; it is said to cheer God and man (Jg 9"), and to make glad the heart of man (Ps 104"). Repentant and returning Israel is to be rewarded by again drinking the wine of her vineyards (Am 9"), as she had done before (Ec 9'). It was to be given to them of hea\'y VOL. 11.

— 3 heart (Pr 31«), but its use had to be limited, for it was intoxicating, as in the cases of Nabal (1 S 25"), Lot (Gn 19-), Amnon (2 S 13^), the drunkards of Ephraim (Is 28'). It was the wine used by Job's family (Job 1"") ; but king Lemuel was dissuaded from its use, because it is said to prevent judgment (Pr 3P), and to cause vomiting (Is 28' 5", Hos 7'). It is called a mocker (Pr 20' ; see also Jer 23'). It was this form of wine with which Melchizedek welcomed Abraham's return (Gn 14').

It is usually rendered olvos by LXX. In general, this word ia used when wine is spoken of as a beverage. EJiTn tirish occurs 3S times, and is rendered by LXX by or^ot, piiii (Is 65), or lUBvaiui (1 S 1", Jer 13', Hos 4"). It is so called because it takes pos- session of the brain and inebriates (Gesenius ; but most moderns reject this etymology). In enumerat- ing the products of the land, corn and wine (tirusk) are mentioned 21 times, and oil is coupled with tirush 15 times.

The "Targumists, Onkelos, and Jonathan render it by hamer. It is said to take away the understanding in Hos 4", and its intoxi- cating qualities are referred to by the Talmudists, • Tirosh easily takes possession of (v-rc, a [ilay upon the word) the mmd,' Sanhedrin, Ixxvi. § 1. In Joma, Ixxvi. 2, it is said, ' If thou abuse it thou shalt he poor {■a■^^, if thou rightly use it thou shalt be head (s-iin)'; and in the Gemara on this, 'Wherefore is it called tirosh?

Because all taken by it shall be poor.' In Jer 40"'- ^ the words yayin and tirush are used as synonyms, and in general tirush is translated ' new wine in AV. It has been argued that tirush meant grapes, because the phrase is used ' to gather tirush' ; but the same is used of yayin, and both are spoken of as trodden out, yayin in Is 16'°, tirush in Mic 6". Collating all the references, it seems as if tirush was especially used for wine as the produce of the vineyard.

See further, Driver, Joel and Amos, 79 f. •Dk' shekar, LXX crkepa, is the word tr. in general 'strong drink,' which occurs 23 times in UT. It was used for the drink-oflering (Nu 28'), and was permitted to be bought with the tithe money and consumed at the temple (Dt 14-*).

In excess it caused merriment (Is 24', Ps 69'-) and intoxication (Is 56'-) ; it is often coupled with wine, as if another intoxicating fluid ; Ibn Ezra says it was made from palm-juice or wheat, Kimchi says from fruit juice, Jerome from grain, grapes, or honey {Epist. ad Nepotianum, ii. 11), so it may have been like the barley wine of the Egyptians (Herod, ii. 77), or like arrack, which is at present often used in Palestine (Robinson, iii. 195).

It is mentioned, among other jilaces, in Lv 10", Nu 6', Dt 29', Jg •13*- '■'■', 1 S l'», Mic 2". Strong drink was to be given to those ready to perish (Pr 31"), w hich h,as been supposed to refer to the practice of giving in- toxicants to deaden the pain of execution. Light- foot says that it was the practice of wealthy women in Jeru.salem to provide the strong drink for this purpose (Ilor. Heb. xi. 366). The vinegar given to our Lord may have been intended for this purpose.

Shekar seems to be named from ita effects (iiy ' to be drunk '). i-n keiner, used twice in Heb. (Dt 32", Is 27', but last probably mistake for Tpn) and six times in Aram. (Ezr C" 7, , Dn 5'- ^ *• '"), seems to be derived from the sparkling, foaming upi>earance of ferment- ing wine. In Is 27- the clause in which it occurs appears to be another line from a vintage song. It was wine of this kind that Cyrus gave for the temple use (Ezr 6'). In Dt 32'^ it is calle<I the pure blood of the grape, i.e.

not mixed with water ; but RV has tr. it the blood of the grape, wine. It is red wine in Is 27-, and it was the wine which Belshazzar drank out of the temple vessels (Dn 5'). O'CV '".y't'i a poetical synonym meaning that which ia trodden out. It is the new wine of Ca 8' ; tht sweet intoxicating wine of Is 49-", the sweet ■nine lainent''d by the drunkards in Jl 1', ami tliat which IS supplied to the restored remnant of Israel as a blessing (Jl 3'*). It is rendered in LXX vofia, y\uKaa-fi6!

, but the sweet wine of Am 9" is /jLiO-q. It is probably the same as ' the sweet' of Nell 8'", where it is called o'ijrc'? mnmtrihkim, or sweetnesses. N3S suite', intoxicating drink in general, the wine of Is 1—, wliich was spoiled by mixture with water, or that in Hos 4'*, which had become sour, or that which drenched the drunkard to helplessness (Nah I'»). ^D? mesek, in Ca 8^ J,f? mezeg, LXX K^pairfia, is mixed wine, to which spices have been added to make it hotter and improve its flavour.

In Pr 23^, Ps 75", Is 65" it is called mim.mk. In Pr 9, ° it is used metaphoricnlly for the inspiring drink supi)lied by wisdom, and in Is 5^ for the strong drink which warps the judgment. In Pr 23*" it is a parallel synonym for yayin. \~'n homcz, or vinegar, is sour wine, the common refreshing drink for labourers, forbidden to the Nazirite while under his vow (Nu 6"), used in the harvest field (Ru 2"), and prophetically mentioned in Ps 69-'. In Pr 10-" LXX renders it «M0a?, an unripe grape.

In NT tlie word commonly vised is orcos, as at the marriage feast at Cana. This wine in excess produced /xeSiio-is (Jn 2'°). New wine was regarded as inferior to old (Lk 5^). rXcvKoi, 'new sweet wine,' is mentioned in Ac 2" as that by which the Jews thought the apostles were intoxicated at Pentecost. It cannot have been unfermented, as that would not have produced the oflTect, and Pentecost was eight months after the vintage.

The collecting of juice from the grapes, which the chief butler in his dream squeezed into the cup, was plainly only a symbol, as in the dream he .saw the whole process of budding, blossoming, and fruiting taking place. There is no evidence of any such custom as squeezing grapes into a cup for royal or guest refreshment. There are several figurative names for wine : ' the fruit of the vine ' (Lk 22'8), 'the blood of the grape' (Dt 32") ; the former reminds us of Pindar's dpicroi dfnrf\ov (vii.

3), or of the name of the vine otvov ii^tt^p in iiischjlus (Persce, 614). The study of the names applied to wine shows that they are, for the most part, evidently syn- onyms, and that the substance indicated by them all was one which. If used to excess, was liable to cause intoxication.

An attempt has been made to obtain a textual support for total abstinence by differentiating intoxicating from unfermented wine in the biblical terminology ; but it is only special pleading without adequate foundation. "The teaching of Scripture as to the pernicious effects of intemperance in any form is clear and explicit, and the Apostle Paul has stated the case for total abstinence in Ro 14 in a way which does not require the treacherous aid of doubtful exegesis for its support.

The wine stored in the large skins in the cellar was dra>\Ti for use into smaller skins, the bottles of Scripture, called n-n hcmeth in Gn 21"''-, hzi nebel, 1 S 1^ 10', 2 S 16' (this word is used figura- tively for the clouds in Job 38"), or iiij norl, Jos 9*"", Jg 4", 1 S 16-". This word is also used figura- tively in Ps 56' in alliteration with nod, 'wander- ing,' for there is no evidence of the use of lacry- matories among the Jews.

The nod was liable to shrivel if hung up in the heat (Ps 1 19«3). In LXX and NT bottle is affxAs. These were made of goat- skins, prepared by cutting off' the head, tail, and feet, and then drawing off the skin from the body without other cutting, and stuffing it with straw, into which wooden wedges were then driven, to stretch it to its fullest capacity. 'The hair was left on the outer surface, the tail and limb holes were closely sewn up, ami the neck hole left open.

The skin was thereafter tanned with oak or acacia bark. These skins are prepared in this manner at the present day, and are called zumzaiiiinim. or mattani. When filled, the nock hole is tied round with a thong. Robinson saw about 500 of these bottles in one tanvnrd (ii. 75). The larger bottles are of he-goat skins, the smallest of the skins of kids. This variety of size is alluded to in Is '22-'''.

When active fermentation is in progress these skins become much distended, and are liable to burst. Tliis is especially liable to occur with new skins of j'oung animals, which are called nix, as in Job 32"'. These are called in Vulg. larjunculrr. Skins which are old are liable to crack, and cannot bear the tension of the carbonic acid pro- duced during fermentation. This is referred to in lit 9", Mk 2:-\ Lk 5".

The preservation of the wine did not mean keeping it from fermentation, — for, with the total absence of antiseptic precautions characteristic of Orientals, it would have been im- possible to do so, — but the storing of it in a bottle which could resist the strain. One of these bottles was a load for a man (1 S 10'). Wine was largely used in Egypt, and the figures of drinking feasts, and the painting of an inebri- ated female from a tomb of the New Empire, are well kno>\Ti (see Wilkinson, i.

392, 424, etc. ). There is an interesting letter written by the scribe Amen- em-apt to Penta-ur, in which the evils of intem- perance are graphically described(Po^.S«/^(er, I. ix. 9, etc.) The commonest beverage in Egypt was beer, made from barley, and called helc. Tlic wine made from the grape, also commonly used, was called arp, and date wine was called bak.

Among the presents to Ptah enumerated in the Harris Papijrns were 2366 wine vessels of one form and 820 of another ; and in the inventory of presents on pi. 72 of that papyrus are 486,303 vessels of boer. The Persians were also much addicted to wine (Herod, i. 133), and the royal wine of Est 1' is re- ferred to by Athenreus [Deipnos. i. 51) ; it was called Chalybonian, and Posidonius says that it is made in Damascus.

Figuratively, the washing of garments in wine means plenty and prosperity (Gn 49"). Wine of astonishment, Ps 60* (RV stagger- ing), is a figure of God's judjjraent on sin, makin" its objects helpless, as if intoxicated. This is called the cup of staggering in Is 51". The Yine of Sodom (Dt 32'=) is probably, as Seetzen and Robinson have supposed, the 'iis/icr or Caloirupis procern, an asclepiadaceous plant, whose fruit looks attractive, but is full of dry cottony hairs.

These are the 'grapes of gall.' Pococke supposed that it referred to diseased pomegranates, and Hooker conjectures that the colocynth may have been meant ; but its fruit has no resemblance to grapes (see Wild Gourd, above). Elliot suggests o.ak galls as referred to, and Hasselquist the egg plant, either Sulanun\ mdongena or S.

Sodommurrt ; out the first identification is most probably correct more especially as the Cfdotropis, while not very common, grows abundantly in one locality by the Dead Sea. Walnut (n;(( '('fjoz, rapifa) is not mentioned as a fniit ; but a garden of nuts, which is mentioned in Ca 6", is taken by the rabbinical authorities as meaning a garden of walnuts. The Arabs call the tree gynus, and it is very common ia Palestine. The common walnut, Juglans rcgia, Ls too well known to need description.

Fruit is referred to metaphorically in the sense of (1) the result of a course of conduct (Ro 6'-'); (2) the work of the Holy Spirit in the conduct (Gal 5", Eph 5") ; (3) chil'dren (Ps 127') ; (4) praise (Is 57'") ; (5) the results of industry (Pr 31"'-''), etc. Mallows (n;'?5 rmtlluah, LXX HXinov, Vulg. Ar- borum cortices) are spoken of in Job 30* as plants eaten by starving outcasts. They have been vari- ously identified as nettles by K.

Levi, as possibly a mesembryanthemum by Kitto, as mallows (malva) by Thomson (L. and B. i. 291), as Corchoms olito- rtus by Sprengel ; but are most probably the salt- wort, as in the RV, the Atriplex halimus or sea- purslain, which is called by the Arabs muUuah, and grows on the shores of the Dead Sea and of the Gulf of Akabah. It is a plant with sour leaves, and has been known to form a part of the diet of the people in periods of scarcity.

Thomson saw poor people cutting coarse green food of this kind as a relish for bread (ii. 345). The mallow in Arabic is called khitbbarzeh. In a parallel passage in Job 24" the poor are said to cut '?'^3 for their children, which may be cattle food (Is 30^") or coarse vegetables in general, and probably the nix or greens which the prophet went to gather were of the same nature (2 K 4^). The Syriac uses this name malluah for the '^nri or ' nettle of Zeph 2^. Juniper roots (nni rothem).

This occurs along with the last as part of the food of the outcast in Job 30'', but the word occurs also as the name of the tree under which Elijah sheltered (1 K 19"), and in the phrase 'coals of juniper' in I's 120^. LXX renders it 'VaBixiv or "PajjAe, and in Job /jffat {uXuK. Symm. tr. it jji^av airuv aypluv, and Josephus does not name the tree, but calls it ' a certain tree' (Ant. VUI. xiii. 7). The Syriac VS calls it a terebinth, and Clement a Paliurus [Pmdagog. iii. 236).

The later Jewish authorities, however, recognized it as the desert broom, Retamn retem, which the Arabs call retama. It is a shrub witli pale pink flowers and very bitter roots. It grows about 10 ft. high, and in many places in the desert is the only shrub under which one could shelter. Robinson describes it in such places ; and one of the wilderness stations of Israel was called Rithmah = broomy (Nu 33'*).

The roots were used as fuel (Ps 120''), and theRevisers have put ' to warm them ' in marg. of Job 30S which, considering the uneat- able nature of the roots, is a more intelligible ren- dering. The word c~r!^ may be regarded as a derivative of the verb D;n ' to heat,' in which sense the same word occurs in Is 47". This sense is taken by some Heb. commentators, as R. Levi ben-Gerson {m loc), but the rendering of the text is that in the Gemara, A boda Zara, i.

Juniper roots are often used for fuel in the wilderness (Thomson, i. 345). B. Animal food consisted either of flesh or of animal products, such as milk, eggs, and honey. Flesh was habitually used only in royal or great houses, and among ordinary people was chiefly used at feasts. Its sources were restricted by law among the Jews, by custom aniong the neighbour- ing nations. The word ixf , which literally means flesh meat (Ps 78-''- "), was sometimes used for food in general (Ex 2V).

The division of beasts into clean and unclean, mentioned in the story of the Deluge (Gn 7"), was written in the light of later legislation, but em- bodies a distinction which can be traced back to a very early period of human history. The two lists of clean and unclean animals (Lv ll'"- and Dt 14''") are practically identical. The mammals permitted to bo eaten were the ruminants proper, except the camel, which, with the hyrax, liare, and swine, are prohibited by name.

Tiiere is reason to believe that this selection is of more than arbitrary value, and that the danger of the transmission of parasitic diseases by the flcsli of these is less than in the case of ,the excluded forms (see Gu^neau de Rlussy, Etude sur I'hijgiinc de Moise). For fanci- ful representations of the forbidden animals as types of vices, see Eusebius, Priep. Erang. viii. 9 ; Clement, Picdag. ii. 10 ; Novatianua, de cibis JudtBorum, iii. The permitted mammals named in Dt are ten.

(a) The three domestic groups, oxen, sheep, and goats. The first group was called in general nc,-ij behanAh, or cattle (Dt \i), neat cattle being distin- guished as -if3= hakdr, LXX/Sofs, tr. the herd, as dis- tinguished from the flock. The calf is in Heb. Vv 'cgel (Is 27'") ; an 'egel marhek or fatted calf was killed for Saul by the -witch (1 S 28='') ; see also Gn 18' (where the calf is ben bakar, 'the son of the herd') and i c-ircvrbs ix6(7xos oi' Lk lo".

-ivS' sh6r (LXX libaxos) is used for a bullock, as in Lv 22-'', Neh 5'», or else i; par, as in Nu 8*, Ps 22'-' ; and a heifer is called 'eglnth bakar (Gn 15', Dt 21') or parah (Gn 41=, Nu 19^). Bulls are named (poet.) pn-sx 'ctftiiVim (Is 34', Ps 22'^), and cows or cattle in general D-ab.x 'alaphim. The commonest breed were black or brown, short limbed and small, and they were principally kept in the valleys and in the low country.

Fat oxen were part of Solo- mon's daily provision (1 K 4^) ; these were fed in a DCN or stall, and hence are called stalled oxen (Pr 15") ; Solomon had also pasture-fed oxen (1 K 4^3, see also Elisha, 1 K 19-'). The aurochs or wild bull (the Hebrew re'em) v/as probably seldom captured, even in nets (Is 51'"). The buffalo was not originally a native, but has been imported into Palestine since Bible times. From the flock [Xi- zun (Gn 4=) the food animals were n^i? taleh, or sucking lambs (LXX a.

pvb's yaXa- diivoi), as in 1 S 7'. A hogget or lamb from one to three years old was named e-^ia kebes (Nu 7">) or 3b'3 kescb (Lv 3'), LXX iS/ii/os or apvbi. In Aramaic a young sheep is called tex 'inimar, as in Ezr 6" ; a ewe is hrn rahel (Gn 31*) ; and a fatted sheep i3 kar (2 K 3^) ; while sheep in general are called nb' sck (Jg 6). The commonest breed of sheej) in Palestine is the fat-taUed variety, whose tail is wide and flat, and may weigh 10 lb., most of which is pure fat.

This fat tail (RV) is the n^K 'ahjdh or rump (AV) of Ex 29-^ (see Herod, m. 113). In Northern Palestine and Syria there is also a short-woolled small sheep, resembling the merino ; both are varieties of the one species Oi'is Aries. The lamb was the commonest of ail meats for feasts, and is still the animal often killed for a guest (Doughty, i. 16). The ram, S^x 'atjU, possibly the beden or wild-goat (Gn 15°), was also used as food (Gn 31^).

For the use of Iambs see 2 S 12, Is 53', and the paschal lamb (Ex 12). The goat (-I'VV sair) was coniiiionl3' kept in flocks in the more mountainous districts, while the sheep was fed in the lower pastures ; the two species of goat, Capra hirrus and C. mambrica, were not ap- parently differentiated by name ; tlie former is the common goat, the latter has a slieep-like head and Ion" pciuTulous, flapping ears. The mr.

Ie or he-goat of tile former breed is the ay iat/is/i, (in 3(>*, Pr 30^', and of tlie latter iii^ji 'atti'u' {Gn 31'"), or in Aramaic TES zlphtr, as Ezr 6". The ly 'cz may have been the Capra JEgagrus 1 1 Sinaitica, both of which are natives of Bible lands, and probably the source of Esau's savoury meat. The kid, "3 gidi (Dt 14'-'), is mentioned as the material fur a small feast (Jg 6" 13").

Compare the fpi^os of the iiarnble (Lk 15-'), and the elder brotlier's iniplied comparison botween the kid and the calf. As the Iamb is useful for his fleece as well as his flesh (Pr 27'^), the kid is commonly used by the poorer or more economical classes (see 1 Es 1'). Rebekah used it for making Isaac's savoury meat (Gn 27°). The thrice-repeated taboo concerning seething a kid in its mother's milk (Ex 23" 34-*, Dt 14-') h.

as been interiireted : (1) As a prohibition of the slauglitcr of the mother and oflspring at the same time (as in Lv 22'^). (2) As forbiifding the killing of the young animal before it was eiglit days old : we learn from the passage just quotcil that an animal was not allowed to be sacrificed until it had reached that age, and it has been thought that it was also unclean aa food.

(3) The most probable explana- tion ia that it had reference to some custom among the surrounding nations, such as that described by Cudworth and Spencer {de Icgibus Eebr. ritual. ii. 335), in which a kid was boiled in its mother's milk, and the broth sprinkled on the ground as a sacrifice to propitiate the harvest gods and ensure fmitfulness. (4) Michaelis has supposed that mother's milk is a euphemism for butter, and that the food forbidden was meat drenched with butter.

For other views on this njy'iB to'ebiih, or abomina- tion, see Tract Chullin, viii. § 4, and Maimonides, More nebochim, iii. 48. Milk and its derivatives formed an important element of the food of the Bible peoples, Pales- tine is described as a land flowng with milk and lioney (Ex 3* and eighteen other places), ajir) haldb, LXX ti.\a, is used for fresh milk (Ca 5", Is 28"), or of cream from which butter is made (Pr 30'').

Milk of goats was esteemed the best (Pr 27"), then that of sheep (Dt 32"). Cow's milk is rarely as good as either of the others, on account of the unsuitability of the pasture, and is not often specified in the Bible. Camel's milk was probably used by the patriarchs, as we infer from Gn 32" ; but it BOUTS more quickly than other milk, and often pains strangers when they first take it (Doughty, i. 216).

Milk IS used as a drink with meals (Gn 18', Ezk 25^), and so is coupled with Avine (Ca 5', Is 55J). When the pasturage is good, sweet milk is still handed round after an Arab meal. It is also offered as refreshment to travellers. Jael opened for Sisera a nod, or leathern bottle of milk (Jg 4'"), which Deborah ( Jg 5^) calls a sephel 'addirim, ' a cup of the nobles ' (EV a lordly dish).

Goat's milk is spoken of as the staple drink of servants (Pr 27*") ; and, as the Hebrew children were mother- nursed, milk was their sole sustenance until they were weaned, hence the metaphorical sense of milk-feeding in 1 Co 3^, He 5'-. The comparison of the law to milk was used by the Jews ; thus Kimchi on Is 55' says, ' As milk feeds and nourishes a child, so the law feeds and nourishes the soul.'

Milk mixed with flour or rice, and eaten with salad, or occasionally \vith meat, forms a large part of the food of the poor in Aleppo (Russell, i. 118) and elsewhere. Among some Jews milk is not eaten with meat, on account of their interpre- tation of Ex 23" (see above). Butter (nxDH hem'dh, LXX ^oi'rTvpov) is used for cream and thick preparations of it, as well as for butter proper.

In Is 7^ it probably means cream, and in Jg 5-* the milk which was called hdlab in Jg 4" is named hem'dh ; but it was liquid enough to be kept in a skin bottle, and was used to quench thirst. The ' butter ' of Gn 18' was probably soured milk, which is now much used in tne East, and called leben{ Burckhardt, Bedouins, i. 240). The process of churning is called po mif, or ' pressure,' m Pr 30". It is now performed by rocking a skin of milk upon the knees (Doughty, i.

221), or by beating with a stick a skin of milk hung up in a frame, or jerking a skin thus suspended to and fro (Robinson, i. 485). The milk used is that of •loats (Robinson, iii. 69) or cows (Dt 32") ; some forms of butter are semi-fluid, and hence the figura- tive language of Job 20" 29'. The amount of butter eaten by Arabs is large, when it can be ^irocured.

Kitto says that all well-prepared Arab tood swims in it ; and Burckhardt describes the Arabs as taking a cupful of butter as breakfast in the morning (see Robinson, i. 449). Melted butter is used, poured over bread in a bowl, as a breakfast dish, and is called onmei (cf. Doughty, ii. 67 f., 208 r, 655 f.) Met.aphorically, the smoothness of hypocritical words is compared to butter (Ps 55^').

Cheese (i"ici hdriz) is mentioned as a delicacy sent by Jesse to the captain of the troop in which hia sons were (1 S 17"), the expression used there meaning ten slices of curd. The [n?^] slmphuh (pi. ehfiphOth) of 2 S 11^ was probably the feben, which here was made of cow s mUk. Cheese ia often made of the milk of the ewe or of the goat. A third word, nj'jj gebindh, means a clot, and is compared (Job 10'") with the material out of which the body develops (cf. DJi gOlem of Ps 139").

The Arabs use dried milk, which they rub up with water when wanted (Doughty, i. 202) ; this they call mereesy. It is also mentioned by Burck- hardt (i. GO). (4) Besides the three domestic groups, seven forms of large game were allowed to be eaten ; these were tne fallow deer, Dama vulgaris (Sjn, LXX ?

\a0o5, the hart of RV and AV, as in Ps 42', La 1') ; the gazelle, Gazella dorcas ("55; zebt, LXX SopKis, AV roebuck, 2 S 2"), called by the Egyptians gahs, and often used as a sacrifice ; the wild cow antelope, Bubalus boselaphus (iiD^; yahmur, LXX Tuyapyos, Vulg. bubalus, AV fallow deer, RV roe- buck), called shes by the Egyptians. These three were hunted (Dt 12'f- =», Pr 6"), and formed elements in Solomon's daily provision ( 1 K 4^).

The other large game were : the ibex or wild goat, Capra beden, the n'eafuoi Egypt; the Sinaitic ibex is also called 'jy; ( Job 39', Ps 104"), hence the name of Heber's wife Jg 4"- " (ipx 'akk6, AV and RV wild goat) ; the addax, Aniilope addax ([WT dishdn, AV and RV ' pygarg,' the ancient Egyp- tian nudu), an antelope with lyrate horns and wOiite hinder part, not uncommon in some parts of West- em Asia, and found in Palestine ; tne oryx, Oryx beatrix (San tS6, LXX ipv^, AV wild ox, RV ante lope), a straight -horned antelope, extending in distribution from N.

Africa to Persia ; the African form, called in Egyptian maud, diflers from the Asiatic in some respects, and is called 0. leucoryx ; it is very commonly represented as being sacrificed in Egyptian pictures ; and lastly, the kibisch or mouflon, Ovis traqelaphus ("itj zemer, LXX Ka/iijXo- irdpSaXts, AV and RV chamois). This is a mountain sheep which is found in Lebanon, Moab, and the Taurus, as well as in Corsica. Neither the chamois nor the girafi'e is a native of Palestine.

(c) The law of clean birds is one of exclusion. All carnivorous or predaceous birds and seabirds, together with the ostrich, raven, heron, and stork, are declared unclean, (jn the positive side, the birds named as articles of diet were six : (1) the pigeon (Columba livia, njV y6nAh, LXX TcpnTTepi) ; (2) the turtle dove (Turtur communis, I'm t6r, LXX rpvyuif). These two were the commonest birds used for food in Palestine, and the only ones admitted as sacrifices.

(3) The partridge, of which two species are found in Palestine, Caccahis chukar, the large Indian partridge, and v4 mmoperdix Heyi, the small partridge of Judaea (1 S 26™). This bird is hunted, as it runs when pursued, and is slow to rise in flight (Robinson, iii. 403). Its nest is sought after on account of the eggs, which are favourite articles of food (Jer 17", Sir ll^). LXX renders it i/uKTiK6pa(, which is a kind of heron. The place- name Beth-hoglah means the house of the partridge.

Partridges as food are represented on an Assyrian sculpture in the British Museum. (4) The quail {Cotumix communis, ij'f sildv, LXX dprvyoii-irrpa), which furnished meat to the Israelites in their wilderness journey (Ex 16"). These are commofc in Egypt, where they are salted and eaten raw (Herodotus, ii. 77). Tne quail annually migrates in immense bevies across the desert nearly along the line of the Israelites' march (Robinson, 1. 260).

(5) Fatted fowl, which were prepared forSolomon's table (1 K 4^), are called on^-is. They were probably ducks or geese, so largely used in Egypt, whero they are called aptiu and terpu. They were ap- parently not domesticated, but caught in nets, fattened and eaten (Lepsius, ii. 46 and 132). (6) Fowl in Neh 5" n'TEi- zipjidrtm, were probably domestic fowl introduced from Babylonia, to which they had been brought from India, their native country.

In NT times they had become domesti- cated in Palestine. It is said in the Mishna that fowl were not allowed in Jerusalem [Baba Kama, vii. 7) ; but this is a mistake (see Mt 26'° and parallel passages). Our Lord was familiar with them and their habits, see Mt 23", where He quotes from 2 Es I**.

Eggs as articles of food in early times were those of wild birds {Dt22«, Is 10" 59") ; but with the in- troduction of geese from Egypt and domestic fowl from India they became much more important as a part of the diet, and now are very largely used (Lk U"). There is no reference to the ancient modes of cooking them, but at the present day they are boiled, or eaten swimming in hot butter and with honey (Finn. 141), or eaten with olives [ib. 272), or boiled \vith rice (Robinson, i.

91), or fried in fat. The white of an egg (rno^n ti rir hallamfith) of Job 6' may be either the material literally ex- pressed, see Tract Chull. 64a, or curdled milk ; but IS understood by some as a succulent, tasteless plant like purslain, Portulaca oleracea, as in the KVm. This plant is common in most places in Palestine, and is in Arabic associated with imbecility. Golius quotes the proverb 'more foolish than purslain,' Sentent. Arab. 81. For other meanings see Gesenius, Thesaurus, snb voce.

Dove's dung, mentioned in connexion ■with the famine during the siege of Samaria, has been variously understood by commentators. It is said (2 K 6'^) that one imperial pint of it was sold for aboat 12s. 6d. o'jVnn hdriyonim. or as it is in I;Cer6 D'}i'?1 dibyonim, is understood by Josephus literally, and he supposes it to have been used as a condiment in place of salt {Ant. IX. iv. 4). The threat in Rabshakeh's appeal to the Jews (2 K 18'-'') is in favour of this view.

Others have supposed that tliis material was used for fuel, as the cow dung in Ezk 4'^ ; and Harmer thinks it was used to manure melons and other vegetables grown within the city [Ohs. iii. 185 ; see Morier's Second Journey, p. 141). Fuller surmised that it might be the con- tents of the pigeon's crop.

Linnaeus and Smith identify it as the root of a liliaceous plant, the Ornithogalum vmbellatum or star of Bethlehem ; but this as well as Bochart's conjecture, that it was a chick-pea or small species of deer, and the view that it was a small species of sorghum, are without foundation, as there is no reason wliy the price of these rare foods sliould be specified. On the whole, there is as much evidence for the literal interpretation as for any of these guesses.

(d) No reptile was permitted to be eaten ; of fishes all that have fins and scales were clean ; but it is a remarkable fact that no species of fish is mentioned in the Bible, nor is there any discrimina- tion except good or bad (Mt 13''*), and big and little (Jon 1", Jn 21", Mk 8''). The Sea of Galilee abounds in fishes, which are delicate and well flavoured (Robinson, ii. 386).

Altogether 43 species have been found by Lortet, Tristram, and others, of which 14 are ptculiar to the lake and to the Jordan. One of the largest of these, Clarias macra- cnnthus, being scaleless, was unclean {KopaKims, Jos. BJ III. X. 8). The largest of the clean fishes are species of Chromis, which resemble the carp, and have large scales. One of these, Chromis Niloticus, called Moncht by the fishermen of Tiberias, has been found up to 5 lb. in weight ; another, C.

Tiberiadis, is peculiar to the lake, and very plenti- ful ; C. Andrece and C. Simonis are also peculiar, as is the C. Flavii Josephi. There are also wur species of barbel of the genera Barbus, Scaphiodon and Capoeta, as well as one species each of dace, loach, and bleak, and two blennies, B. Lupulus and B. varius. Sea fishery weis carried on at Tyre (Ezk 26°), and from thence preserved fish weie im- ported into Jerusalem (Neh 13"), probably dried and cured.

It was likely some dried fishes which formed part of the food ^vith which the 5000 were fed. The fish-market at Jerusalem was probably at the fish-gate (2 Ch 33"). The fishpools o"f Heshbon (Ca 7*) have been regarded as indicating that the Jews kept fish in them for use ; but the word ' fish ' is here an interpolation. Abundance of fish was one of the elements in the pros])erity of Joseph, according to his blessing, Gn 49^. Fish was one of the staple foods in Egypt (Nu 11°).

See picture of fishing in Baedeker's Egypt, p. 411, and Wilkinson, ii. 102. (e) Four insects were allowed to be eaten accord- ing to the list in Lv ; these were : (1) the na-ix 'arbeh, LXX^poCxos, the swarming locust, ^dipodamigra- toria; (2) dj;^d sol' dm, LXX aTriKris, probably Aery- dium peregrinum, the bald locust of AV ; (3) '?

j^n harg6l, LXX d^iofuixoi (AV beetle), a leaping animal, and therefore not a beetle, probably the khardjala of the Arabs, which tlie Rabbins supposed to be a grasshopper, more probably the lari'est of the locusts, ^dipoda cristata ; and (4) 3;ri hdgcib, LXX axpis, probably the little black locust found in the Sinaitic desert which tlie Arabs call Faras el-jundi or soldiers' horses, recalling the description of the locusts in Rev 9''.

It is, however, not pos- sible precisely to identify these two latter fonns. Locusts formed part of the food of the Baptist (Mt3S Mk 1«). Doughty describes them as being prepared by salting, and then being stived into a leathern sack in which they kept good a long while. They mingle them, brayed small, with butter-milk. The best is the fat spring locust ; the later brood is dry and unwholesome (i. 203).

Burckhardt says they are put alive into boiling brine, then dried in the sun, the head, legs, and wings being plucked off and then stored in bags. Tliey are sometimes mixed with butter and spread on bread. The}' taste not unlike shrimps. On one of the Assj-rian sculptures in the British Museum two slaves are represented with long sticks of locusts.

Honey took the place of sugar in cookery, either the natural product (1 S 14^, Mt 3^ Lk 24^, AV, not RV) or the artificial (/i;6smadeofgrapesordate3,descri bed above. True honey is collected by the bee. Apis fascinta (see Bke). It is found in hollows in rocks (I)t 32'», Ps 81'«) or in hollow trees (1 S 14), from which it drops on the ground. A shrub or tree on which was a honeycomb was called nv:, a word used for honeycomb in Ca 5'.

Birds, jackals, and ants would soon reduce a lion to a drj* skeleton, so that in a few days a swarm of bees might take possession of it (J g 14'). Herodotus tells us that the head of Onesilus, suspended over the gate of Amathus, became filled with honeycomb (v. 114). See also the account of the P-gj-ptian practice of killing a calf and placing it in a favourable place, when in nine days Dees swarm \vithin the carcase (Virgil, Georg. Iv. 300 ff.)

Compare with this I'ythagoras' theory of the origin of bees, 0\'id, Metamorph. xv. 27. As honey is liable to ferment, it was forbidden t« be used in any ottering to God (Lv 2"), the pre- servative material salt being used instead. Honey was one of the exports of Palestine to Tyre. Along with it is named the substance Pannao, supposed by some to be a sweetmeat. LXX translates it 'cassia,' and the Vulgate 'balsam.' In the SjTiac it is said to be millet.

At the present day honey is used by the AraU \o sweeten cakes (Ex 16") as we use sujj.ir. It is eometiiiies, but not often, eaten by itself from the comb (.1^ 14"), or as it drops from the comb (IS 14-''). Tlie liipiid honey as it lias dropped, called <]K zuph (Pr 16-*, Ps 19"), is the best, and a cruse of this was part of the present brought by Jeroboam's wife to Ahijah (1 K 14').

Honey was brought with the other provisions to David in exile (2 S 17^), and wild honey [lii^t- Hypiov) was part of the Baptist's diet (Mt 3). Butter and honey is expressive of a rich diet, see Burckhardt, Arabia, i. 54, but not Is T"- ~. Milk and honey are the products of a fertile land {Odi/ss. xx. 68). The ellects of a surfeit of honey are graphically described in Pr 25'". Honey is .still stored in jars or skins as of old (.ler 41).

Salt (n'p7), eaten with food as a condiment to fla\our it (Job 6', Sir 39-*), used to preserve food, and given to cattle (Is 30'^), was extracted from the salt beds by the Dead Sea, or made by evaporation from sea water. There are masses of rock salt several miles in extent on the S.E. of the Dead Sea (Robinson, ii. 108), and the salt of Sodom is named in a Gemara ; see also Josephus, Ant. XII. iii. 3, XIII. iv. 9.

Much of this salt was very im- pure, hence it sometimes lost its savour as well as its preserving power, and was cast out on the land as waste (Mt 5", Lk 14^). This was due to the rain washing out the salt and leavin" onl}- the earthy dross. Too much salt rendered the land barren, and to sow with salt meant to doom to perpetual desolation (Dt 29=^, Jg 9«, Zeph 2», Jer 17", Job 39'). Salt was to be used with all the .sacri- fices ( Lv 2", Ezk 43-', Mk 9'' TR). See II. i 449, and ^■Eneid, ii.

133. For this purpose salt was sold in the temple market; see Mail, de vsu Snlis Symbol. inrebussacris Dissert. ,Giessen, 1692; 3Iiddoth,v.Z. The addition of salt to the animal sacrilice was probably a later arrangement. See Philo, ii. 255 ; Hottinger, Jur. Heb. Leg. p. 168, and de Usu Salis in Cultu sacro, Marburg, 1706 ; Wokenius, de Salitura Oblntiortnm, 1747. Salted incense is referred to in Ex 30^. Salt is much prized, both in Syria and Egypt.

A Bedawi prefers salt to sugar when both are ofFered to him. It is an emblem of hospitality ; to eat bread and salt with one is to be bound to him by ties of hospitality, a covenant of salt (Lv 2", Nu 1S'», 2 Ch 13^). A similar alliance is expressed in Ezr 4". See Niebuhr, Bcschreibung, 48 ; Baehrdt, de Foedere Salis. For the washing of infants in salt see Medicine. It is possible that the Sidonian Misrephoth-maim of Jos 11* 13' may have been a place of salt-pans where sea water was evaporated.

Hyssop (3'ix), which may be mentioned pa an accessory to the feast of Passover, though in itself not a food-stufV, is a labiate herb of inconspicuous size, which was used by the Egyptian priests for food (Porphyry, de Abstinentia, iv. 7), but is men- tioned in the Bible only as a means of aspersion, considered by Celsius to be the Hijssopits officinalis, a thyme-like plant. In Negaim, xiv.

6, there are five kinds recognized — the Greek (Origanum Smyr- yiivitm), the Egyptian (Orifinum ^gypliactim), the wild (0. Syriacum), the Cochali [Origanum maru), and the Roman (Satureja Juliana). As the hy.ssop had a firm stem and could be tied in a bundle, it was probably thi' 0. maru. Kitto conjectures that it is the poke [P/iytolocca decandra) ; but this is not a native of Palestine.

Royle, Tristram, and Stanley believe it to be the caper (Capparis spinosa) ; but this does not fulfil the conditions ; it is soft, smooth, and irregularly branched, besides it is mentioned under another name as •Ti'^.s abiyondh (Ec 12', 'desire' AV, 'caperberry' RV).

riie flower, buds of the caper are supposed to stimulate passion and appetite, and were eaten with vinegar along with meat as they are still ; hence the meraphorical use in the paaeage, whose real meaning is better conveyed by the AV than by the RV literal reading. The following fruits or herbs are used with meats as condiments : — Anise or dill (-Mt 23^), an umbelliferous plant, Ancthum graveolens, whose fruits were used as a carminative. It is a native of Palestine.

The allied Pimpinella anisum is the anise of Pliny ; but the dill is called by Hippocrates if-qOoi', and by Dioscorides aylKirrov, the word used in the text. Its properties are much the same as those of the caraway seed. For an account of references in classical literature see Pliny, xx. 17 ; and for a figure see Woodville's Med. Botany. In Maase- roth, iv. § 5, Rabbi Eliezer says the seeds, leaves, and stem of the shabath or anise are liable to tithe. DUl is called in Arabic shibt.

At the present day the fruit of Anethmn is called dill, and that of Pimpinella is anise-seed. Coriander, the small round fruit of Corinndrum satiaum to which the manna was compared, used in the same way as anise, especially in Egypt (Ex 16^', Nu 11'). It is an umbelliferous plant, and grows in Syria and Egypt (see Pliny, xx. 20 ; and for figures of this and tlie following plants see Woodville).

Cummin, also an umbelliferous plant (Cuminum sativum), whose fruit was cultivated as a carmina- tive, and was beaten with a rod oH' the plant wlien it was ripe (Is 28-^, Mt 22'^). In Heb. it is called p2, kammOn, and in Gr. ni/uvoi/. For its use see Pliny, xix. 8. As to the doubt of its being tithed see Dcmai, ii. § 1. Mint (ribvoaixov, Heb. kji:-:), the well, known aromatic labiate plant Mentha sylcestris, men- tioned with tile last in Mt 23^. For its use among the Jews see Celsius, Hierobot.

i. 546, and Pliny, xix. 47. See Ulcetzin, i. § 2 ; also Nudarim, 51i; Shebiith.vn. §§ 1,2. Mustard {aifinn), the small seed of the common Sinapis nigra, wliich grows to a very large size in Palestine as the 'greatest of herbs' (Mt 13^= 17*, Lk 13'-' n"), and is used as a condiment. See Thomson, Land and Book, i. 453. The pungent seeds of a small tree, Salcadora persica, have been supposed by Dr.

Royle to be the mustard of the parable ; but this is rarely, if at all, found in Palestine, and is not an herb, but a tree. The only claim is, that it is called in India kliarjal, while khardal is the Arabic for mustard (see Royle, Journ. Asiatic Soc. 1S44, No. xv., and Lambert, Trans. Linn. Soc. xvii. 449). To the miraculous food by which the Israelites were fed, the name Manna is given.

This has been supposed to be the gumm\- exudation of the Tamarix mannifera, a shrub which grows in the wilderness ; but the whole description indicates that it was a miraculous food. III. Taboos. — There are certain prohibitions specially mentioned in the Pentateuch. One of these, tlie kid in mother's milk, has been already discussed.

Blood is one of the most ancient of these taboos, and in connexion with it all animals whicli died of themselves or were killed other- wise than by being bled, were forbidden. Any such n^;:, nChi'ldh, or carcase, might be given to strangers, or sold to foreigners, but was an abomi- nation to the Jews (Dt 14-'). The eater of it was rendered unclean (Lv 17" 22'). Likewise that which was torn of beasts (Ex 22"), while it might be eaten bj' the stranger, was not allowed to the Israelite (Lv 17").

Hunting by dogs was therefore not practised. The observance of this taboo of ^'33 piqgul, or abominable Uesb is referred to in Ezk 4'* and Ac 10'^ (ttS-v koivov khI cLKidapTOf), and it was one of the four ' necessary things' proliibitcd to the Gentile converts by the .Ieru.salem Council, Ac 15^ ("things strangled').

Tlie eating of blood, which is one of the most ancient FOOD FOOD 39 prohibitions (Gn 9*) re-enacted in the Mosaic law in which it is frequently repeated, had not only a hygienic basis, but Iiad reference probably to the drink-offerings of blood which were parts of the lieathen rituals (Ps 16''). It was thus a law of demarcation, and in Lv 19-' eating with tlie blood and auguries are bracketed together.

The poison- ous effects of bull's blood are referred to by several authors ; Midas (Strabo, I. xi. § 21) and Psam- menitus (Herodotus, iii. 15) are said to have been killed by it. Tlie Fat of animals was also forbidden (Lv 7*) as food, and in the sacrificed victims this is called ' the food of the burnt-ofl'ering ' Lv 3". ' All the fat is the Lord's ' (v.>«), see 1 S 2'«, 2 Ch 7', Gn i.

What is specially referred to is the thick subcutaneous layer, and that around the kidneys and other viscera, as well as the fatty tails of the sheep. The ' fat things ' of the promised spiritual feast in Is 25^ as well as Ln Neh 8'" are D'jSv'ip mashmannim, delicate things, not a'jn hi'leb, suet. The Sinew that shrank (Gn 32'^), which it was the custom of the Jews to avoid, was a tribal taboo although not specially interdicted by statute.

It is not known what part is particularized by the name tj gid, as the word is a general one, used of the sinews of the whole body in the vision of dry bones, Ezk 37*. Some have supposed it to be the gi'eat sciatic nerve at the back of the hip ( Josephus, Ant. I. XX. 2), but that is not situated in the hollow of the thigh. This region, kaph haijijerck, evidently means the groin, wliich was facing his antagonist when Jacob was wrestling.

There are two sinews there which if cramped cause lame- ness— one the tendon of i\\e psoas, which exactly fits the description, but is very seldom cramped ; the other, that of the adductor longtis, is exceedingly liable to cramp when the thijjh is twisted, and this causes agonizin" pain and lameness, and would etlectually disable a wrestler. I have known it to bQ severely strained in athletic exercises, causing lameness for several weeks.

Some Jews have re- commended that the hind legs of animals should not be eaten, lest \>y accident this sinew should be partaken of by mistaks. This was not the practice in early times, for Samuel's cook set the thigh of the animal before Saul as the piece of honour (1 S 9^. A V and RVm tr. piEJ here ' shoulder '). See Tract ChiiUin, 7. Swine, forbidden as food to the Jews, were eaten by the surrounding peoples in general. The Egj'ptians also considered the pig unclean (Herod. ii.

47), for a reason the Greek author forbears to mention, but which we learn from the Book of the Dead, as the demon Set once appeared in the form of a pip. Hence they are never represented in the older monuments, but appear in those of the New Empire (Wilkinson, ii. 100). The foul habits and co.irse feeding of swine, their supposed liability to glan- dular disease [which has given us the Latin name of such swellings' scrofula' (Celsus, V. xxviii. 7), and its Greek equivalent xoipds (Hippoc.

Aplt. 124S)], and the notion that leprosy followed the eating of swine's llesh, contributed to tliis dislike. After the Captivity, however, especially under Syrian and Roman domination, the keeping of swine was prac- tised for commercial purposes if not for food, hence our Lord's references Mt 7°, Lk 15'°, Mt S''" (see Tlionison, i. 35511".) Swine's llesh is taboo to (he Mohammedan as well as to tlie Jew.

For a detailed consideration of this prohibition see Spencer, de leqihus Hebrwonitn ritualibus, Cambridge, 1727, i. p. 131. The Camel, which is eaten by the Bedawin, was forbidden by the Levitiial code. It is coarse and rather dry meat. The milk, however, was used in patriarchal times (see above). It wna probably camel's milk which Jael gave to SiseriL The Hare (n^i-iN), only mentioned as being unclean because it is not cloven-footed, was common in the hilly regions.

In the North the commonest species is Lcpus Syriacus, in the South L. ^Egyptiacus, and in the Arabah and Dead Sea district L. Sinaiticus. It is said to chew the cud from its habit of sitting in its form, hut it is not a true ruminant. The same is the case with the shaphan or coney, which is the Ilyrax Syriacus. The oldest taboo is that of the fruit of the tree nyin W, ^''° ' of the knowledge of good and evil.'

Con- jecture as to the actual tree meant is useless, but it is worth noting that the banana was identified with it by many mediajval ^Titers ; see Broeard's Descript. Terra Sancta, xi. See also Celsius, Hierobot., in which it is supposed to be the quince. In the NT there is added the taboo of things ofiered to idols (Ac 21=«, 1 Co 8^). The early ecclesi- astics increased the stringency of the apostle's ordinance, and by the CouncU of Ancyra (c.

7) it was forbidden to a Christian to eat in any place which was connected with idolatrous worship, even if he brought his own food. On the other liaiid, Gregory, in writing to Augustine {Ep. xi. 76), recommends that the heathen sacrifices of oxen should be allowed to be continued in the English temples to accustom the people gradually to the change of ritual, but that they should be made on saints' days.

For the tabooed vineyard on account of mixed seeds see above ; and for rabbinical comments on taboos see Aboda Zara, especially V. §9. The Ass, though an unclean animal, was eaten during periods of famine. In 2 K 6" it is said that during the siege of Samaria a niaq-c'XT rosh-Mmor, or ass's head, was sold for about £10. It has been supposed that this meant a measure of corn, but this is unlikely.

In periods of dearth, distinctions of food are impracticable (Ezk 4'^) ; for parallels see Plutarch (vii. Artax. Mnemon, i. 1023, and Xeno- phon, Anab. i. § 5). Even human flesh was eaten in such straits, see 2 K 6-", La 4'», Ezk 5'". IV. Food Prepak.\tion.

— In primitive times tlie field, the flock, and the herd supplied all tlmt was needful to the family, who procured it directly when wanted as in Gn 18* ; but with the growth of towns and tlie consequent division of labour, food became a matter of merchandise. It was so in time of famine (Gn 42''), or to those on journeys (Dt 2'^-''^). Markets or bazaars became established in the towns (Jer 37-'), and merchants and shonmen (1 K 10'°) supi>liod tlie wants of the town-dwellers.

We read of such sellers of victual in Jerusalem (Neh 13") and Samaria (Jn 4"). In this way, bread, water, fruit, milk, and tlesh are purveyed to the people of the cities of tlie East. Cookery was practised at anpervised by tlie wife (Gn IS''), or by a s\a.v (Gn 18'). At set feasts there was a cook employed (1 S 9^) who killed the animals, and hence was called nzo fabbidi, a word also api)lied to soldiers or executioners (Jer 39").

Some of these were female cooks (1 S 8'*) who dressed the meats, and dillered from the n-EX or bakers, and the nini5-i who were [lerfumers or spice mixers (1 S8" AV and KV ' confectionaries'). The animals were killed immediately before being cooked (Gn 18', Lk 15^) ; the tliroat was cut and the blood poured out in accordance with Lv 7'^ (see 1 S 14''-") ; they were then flayed (Mic 3») and cut up into joints, except in the case of small animals such as lambs, which were cooked whole (Ex 12'").

With larger animals the fle.sh was .sejiar- ated from the bones, and the.se broken wlien the flesh was to he boiled (Mic 3'). The doubtful fiir. \(;. nc'5 is tr. in Job 15'-'' collops. Boiling was the ordinary method of cooking, hence '?►; bCtshal, to boil, is used of cooking in general (2 S IS'^ The vessels used for this purpose were pots or caldrons of different kinds, ■which are called by six different names (see below).

Some of the Bacnlices were boiled, havin" first been flayed, the fat alone being burned (2 Ch 35"). This was esi)ocially the case with the sacrificial feasts, peace- offering, or liostin honorijica. In boiling, the caldron was first partly filled with water, and the flesh put in (Ezk 24") ; sometimes milk was used, as Burck- hardt describes being done at the present day (i. 63), and occasionally the bones were used to make the fire bum briskly, as Ezekiol describes.

When the scum rises it is taken off (Ezk 24', but RV tr. i|<^g heV&h, as ' the rust of the pot,' not scum, LXX lU). in Ezk 24'<' AV tr. n-p-in harkiah, ' spice it well," as if derived from 0,^) to mix spices, but LXX has it iXamhdr) i f<j/i4s, and RV renders it ' make thick the broth.' Spicing, that is, mi.xing with savoury or carminative herbs, was used to render meat savoury (Gn 27''), and such food was called 'dainty meat ' (Pr 23'' d^^d mat'am, but called mariam in Ps 141*).

Salt was also added, and when boiled the broth, pi= m&rak (Is 66* ^erl, but the Kethib has parak, wliich means a stew or a mess of mincemeat in broth), was served separately (Jg G'"- '"). In modem Hebrew, soup is nj>-iii1 rakreketh. The broth may be used as a sauce for meat (Burckhardt, 1. 63), or eaten with bread and butter (Gn 18"). Vegetables or rice or meal may be boiled in it or eaten mixed with it.

Vegetable food was also boiled in water, with butter or with mUk, to make pottage (Gn 25^, 2 K 4^*), which was of the con- sistence of thick Scotch broth or thin porridge. Roasting was practised with small animals, such as the paschal lamb, which was cooked wliole (Ex 1?") over an open fire (Ex 12«, 2 Ch 35>»), which was of wood (Is 44"). Animals taken in the chase were also roasted (ijirr harak, Pr 12"). Or the meat was baked in an oven, which may have been sunk in the OTound (see Bread).

The p.aschal lamb was flayed before being roasted (2 Ch 35")- E'i's sons (1 S 2'^-) sinned in that they took part of the flesh, which should have been boiled, and roasted it. Tliey also seem not to have been content with the priestly share, which was ultimately fixed as the breast of the peace-offering and the riglit shoulder (Lv 7''"'). The only method of cooking fish men- tioned in the Bible is broiling ((Stttos, Lk 24", see Jn 2P) on the coals.

In the Gizeh j\Iuseum there is a representation of shepherds broiling fish over the fire, and wiping the aslies from thein witli little bundles of straw (see Perrot-Chipiez, Hist, de. I' Art dans I'antignM, i.) V. Ves.sels used in the conveyance and cooking of food. There were several kinds of basket (see Basket). The pots were of six kinds : 1. td str, LXX X^/37)s, called in Jer 1" a sir ndphiiah or boiling caldron.

Of this kind were the flesh-pots of Egypt (Ex 16") and the great pot used by the sons of the prophets (2 K 4^), as well as the caldron of Ezekiel's visions (11'-' 24«), and of Zechariah (U"'-^"). In the list of temple furniture this word is tr. 'pot' in 1 K 7* and 'pan ' in Ex 27', in which cases it was a brazen vessel for ashes, not for boiling. It is tr^ •washpot' in Ps 60^ and 'caldrons' in Jer 52^8 (RV pots). 2, nn dM, usually tr.

basket (which see), IS the kettle of 1 S 2" and the caldron of 2 Ch 35", tr. Xi^-qi by LXX in the latter case. 3. The pan of 1 S 2", 1 K 7^, and 2 Ch 4« is -iv} kiyyor, LXX X^/Sijs. This word is variously tr. ' torch ' (Zee 12, RV 'pan'), 'laver,' or washing vessel (Ex 30' etc.), and seems to have been a shallow, wide-mouthed utensil.

The on-j of Lv II", which like the tannur or oven could be broken down, was probably, as AV and RV render it in the text, a firehearth or range for pots (RVm has 'stew-pan'), perhaps of two Bides as the dual indicates, LXX xi'^rpi-n-odcs. i. The caldron of Mic 3' is no^p kallnhath, simiLarly tr. In 1 S 2", LXX x^C^i *n earthenware vessel for boiling. These were slightly glazed by means of salt and litharge. Tliis may be referrea to in the D'j'p or silver dross of Pr 26-^ 5.

The pot of 1 S 2" isTiip^Jnnir, tr. 'pan' in Nu 11' (RVjiots); in Jg 6'" it was a pot for holding broth, LXX x^P'^- 6. The pan of 2 Ch 35'' is m'^-n zclaMh. This is the woril tr. ' cmse ' in 2 K 2-^, and ' dish ' in 2 K 21" and Pr 19^ (AV tr. it here ' bosom ' as LXX kcSXttos). The caldron of A V Job 41'"' is properly translated ' rushes ' in RV. The figure being that leviatlian's snortings make the pool in wliicli he swims to boil like a caldron and the reeds to seem as if on lire. The ih]!

p or flesh hook was a brazen fork (Ex 27'), which had three teeth (1 S 2"). The hooks of Ezk 40" for hanging up the slaughtered carcases of the offered animals are called D:ri5;f' shlphattaim. The firepan or chafing dish of 2 K 25'° .inn? mnhtAh was used for carrying burning coals. These vessels were of gold in the first temple. The dishes or trays or other vessels in which food and drink were served are known by various names. Pottage was eaten out of the pot in which it was boiled (2 K 4'"').

Thomson describes the Bedawin sitting around a large saucepan and doubling their bread spoon-fashion to eat their lentil pottage (i. 253). Many of the vessels named were employed only in the temple service. ■^a-ijN 'agartdl, LXX \pvKTi^p, V ulg. phiala, only used in Ezr P and tr. ' charger,' was a gold bowl or basin, said by Ibn Ezra to be the same as that called mizrdk. t3X 'aggdn', LXX KpaHip, used in Ex 24' for a wash-vessel or basin for sacrificial blood, made of gold, silver, or brass.

Its plural is tr. cups in Is 221 ; see also Ca 7. ^;0N 'Cisi'ik, an oil vessel 2 K 4' tr. ' pot,' after Kimchi, but more probably a flask or bottle. i|-i!< 'argdz, a cofier or box, which could be slung to the side of a cart, such as that in which the votive oft'erings of the Philistines were sent ( 1 S 6"). pzp3 bakbuk, a wide-mouthed bottle or cruse for carrying honey (1 K 14').

It was of earthenware, and so was easily broken (Jer 19'' '") ; LXX renders it ^ik6s, which is the name given by Herodotus to the Babylonian casks of palm wine (i. 194). Athena;us uses it for a drinking vessel (784 D). In Maltese a large vessel of this kind is called bakb7/kii. Ji';; ijabln, wine bowls (as Jer 35', LXX KcpiiMov), of earthenware, from which wine was poured into goblets. A Sliver cup used for drinking and divination Gn 44^; LXX kovSv, said to be a Persian word.

It is used for the pots of wine out of which Jeremiah filled the k6s6th for the Rechabites, Jer 35". i^j guUAh, LXX <rrpcirTbv AvBiiuov, a round vessel for holding oil in a lamp Zee 4', the golden cruse of Ec 12', used also for the rounded bowls above the capitals of the temple-pillars in 1 K 7' and 2 Ch 412. 13^ possibly volutes such as those shown on the tablet of Samas in the Brit. Museum. 13 kad, a pail or barrel to hold meal 1 K 17', or water 1 K IS''.

This name is given to Rebekah's Sitcher Gn 24'''- ""•, and to Gideon's men's pitchers g 7" ; see also Ec 12'. '^^ klli, a vessel in general, of gold and silver Gn 24°', or of clay Lv 11", apparently so called irrespective of shape, used for the vessels of the temple Is 52", Ezr 1", Nu 4". D13 kOs, a wine cup as in Gn 40"- "• ". Pharaoh's wine chalice, the cup which passed around the circle at a meal 2 S 12'. See also Pr 23", used metaphorically Ps 11« 116", Is SI""'", Hab 2" etc.

-o and 3p were vessels of measurement, the former about 8 bushels, the latter about 4 pints. nxr, also a measure, nearly equals the English peck, and is a little greater than the /iidios or ' Dushel' of Mt 5". See Weights and Measures. FOOD FOOD 41 ■l^s? klphSr, a deep cup or chalice as I Ch 28", Ezr 1'", and 8-'', probably a cup with a cover. rjnp mahabath, a flat plate(V) for frj'ing or baking bread Lv 6" V, 1 Ch 23^, Ezk 4». See Bread. njiriD mahtQ.

h, a firepan 2 K 25", or an incense bowl Lv le'i^ a eoalpan Ex 27^ 25^, LXX irvpuov. n;pjD menakkiydh, a sacrificial dish Ex 25'° 37", Nu 4', Jer 52^*, probably a libation vessel. njiQ mldokdh, a mortar in which e.g. the manna ■was beaten before being baked Nu 11°. piji? a bowl ; of these Hiram made a hundred 2 Ch 4», 1 K 7«- «. See Ex 25^, 1 Ch 28"- ", Nu 7", Zee 9". For the numbers of these 0t<i\at and aiTovSeia see Jos. Ant. viii. iii. 7, 8.

It is a sacri- ficial bowl for dashing (p"i;) the blood in a volume against the altar (see Driver's note on Am &). niii nod, a skin bottle, see above under Wine. Sjj nebel, a skin of wine 1 S l 10', 2 S 16' ; this word is also used for an earthen vessel as in Is 22 30'. It is also the name of a musical instrument, a lute (RV) or psaltery or viol Is 5". IP saph, a basin or bowl for blood Ex 12", Jer 52'», for wine Is 51", Zee 122. ^SD .

icphel, a bowl Jg 5^ C ; LXX XcKiv-q ; also in 1 K 7" and 2 K 12'^ Ti^pak, a vial or flask of oil 1 S 10', 2 K 9'-»; LXX (paK6s, probably the same as the bnlchuk. no5» zappalinth, a water bottle 1 S 26''2, 1 K 19°, or an oil bottle 1 K 17'- ; an oryballus or round vessel with a narrow neck, see Thomson, ii. 21. See 2 K 9'"' for box of ointment. iii^s zelah&h, a dish or bowl in which sacrifices were boiled as in 2 Ch 35", or a flat saucer for salt 2 K 2'-» 21'\ Pr 19=-' 26".

njvjv zinzeneth, in Ex 16", was the pot in which the manna was laid up, a vase or jar according to Abu'l Walid and Sa'adya. 'A\d^ao-Tpof of Mt 26' was a vessel made of satin spar or Oriental alabaster, which is a variegated kind of marble of calcium carbonate, not the jij-psura or calcium sulphate now called alabaster. Vessels of this kind are described by Theophrastus {de Odoribtis, 41) and by Pliny (ix. 56) as elongated or pear-shaped with fairly narrow necks.

Some alabastra were made of glass, gold (Plutarch, Vit. Alex.), or earthenware (Epiphanius, de men- turis et ponderibus, xxiv. 182). nii'aj, the charger in which the Baptist's head was sent (Mt 14'- "), w.as a flat dish. Finn refers to a case in which some Bedawin sent the head of an enemy on a dish on the top of a pillau of rice (p. 35). The Trapofis of Mt 23^ was a smaller dish on which dainty food was served.

Of other NT vessels, TroTTipioK is the drinking cup of Mk 7'', and that used at the Last Supper Mk 14^ etc. ^^a-T-qs in Mk 7'' is a Latinism, a cor- ruption of sextarius, a pint measure. The word is used by Sicilian WTiters. x''^"""' '■> t''6 same passage is a copper or bronze vessel of any shape. iSpiai \L$tvai at the feast at Cana (Jn 2") were stone pitchers of considerable capacity.

Early figures of these from sarcophagi ana from the well-known ivory plaque in Ravenna are published by Bottari and Bandini, and an ancient hydria is shown as one of these in the Ch. of St. tlrsula in Cologne ; for others see Didron, Annates Archfol. xiii. 2. VI. The usual meals in ordinary life were two — a mid-day meal or dinner, and an evening meal or BU]iper, which was the more important. Break- fast was, and still is, an informal repast.

That in Jn 21" was a meal after a night of toil, so ' dine ' in AV is replaced in RV by ' break your fast' {ipuniiaaTe). The meal at the Pliarisee's house in Lk 11" is also, as in RVm, a breakfast or early meal. Peter, defending the apostles, points out that they could not be drunken, as it was only 9 o'clock in the morning (Ac 2'°). Early drinking of wine at such a time was a sign of degradation (Is 5"), and eating in the morning is deprecated as culpable luxury (Ec 10") and out of due season.

It is still the custom in the East to make the morning repast a very slight one — a cup of milk, a piece of butter. Robinson describes melted buttei (seinen), or oil poured over bread, as a breakfast dish (ii. 70), or cakes baked on the ashes and broken up and mixed with butter in a dish (ii. 18). The morning meal of the Bedawi is about 9 or 10 o'clock (Burckhardt, Notes, i. 69).

Drumniond notices how his negro bearers in tropical Africa rose from sleep and began their day's work without food {Tropical Africa, p. 100). The mid-day meal or dinner in Egypt was at noon (Gn 43"), and probably was at the same time in Palestine (Ru 2'''). Abstinence from this is called fasting (Jg 20-'', 1 S 14-^, 2 S 1'^ 3^). From these passages it is evident that the people were accustomed to ' eat bread ' at mid-day.

Uod pro- mised to Israel bread in the morning and flesh in the evening (Ex 16'-). This early meal is the ipiarov of Lk 14'^. St. Peter's intended meal, interrupted by Cornelius' messengers, was at 12 o'clock. This meal took some time to prepare, so the good housewife began to make ready this pn while it was yet night (Pr 31'=). The meal is called nnn.S 'aruMh, as in Jer 40' 52'', 2 K 25*', and Pr 15". The noon meal is described in Lane's Modern Egyptians, p. 156 If. (Gardner's ed.)

It sometimes was a period of excess (1 K -JO"*). The supper after the day's work is done (Ru 3') is, and was, the more important meal (see Burck- hanlt's Notes, i. 69), and the one at which flesh meat was more commonly used. At these meals the whole family was gathered together. Accord- ing to .loseplius, the law required dinner to be at the sixth hour on the Sabbath day (Life, 54), i.e. at 12 o'clock ; but in § 44 he speaks of feasting with his friends at the second hour of the niglit = !i p.

m. See also BJ I. xvii. 4, and the great supjier of Lk 14'=f- In the patriarchal days they seem to have sat on the ground as they do at present. Abraham's guests probably thus sat while he stood and served (Gn IS*). Jacob says to his father ' sit and eat of my venison,' but that was probably because the blind old man was recumbent (Gn 27''-'). Jacob's sons also sat down to eat (Gn 37-^), as the Egyjitian shepherds are represented in a painting from Sakkarah, now in the Gizeh Museum.

The Levite and his concubine sat down to eat (Jg 19"). Saul also sat at nieat(l S 2U°- ■■^), as did Samuel when he brought Saul to feast with him (1 S 9-"-'), and Jesse and his family (1 S 16"). The old iirophut and his guest likewise took the forbidden meal sitting at a table (1 K 13**). Sitting at moat is mentioned in Pr 23', Jer 1G», Ezk 44».

Sitting, however, might have in some of these cases meant reclining, for Oholibah is described as sitting on a stately bed with a table prcimred before it (Ezk 23''), and the guests at Esther's banquet reclined on couches (Est 7*). The table is also mentioned in Ps 23'. Sitting on the ground was, however, regarded as a sign of humiliation and abasement in prophetic times, as in Is 3-" 47' 52-, Jer 13" RVm, La 2'», Ezk 26".

In NT times the usual attitude was reclining and resting on the loft elbow ; as at the supper described in Jn l.'i-', John reclined in front of our Lord, and so when he leant back to speak to Him John's head was on Jesus' breaiit.

It has been sup- posed from these expressions that the patriarchal custom changed, and that the practice of sitting a« the Egyptians did was adopted by early Israel, the fashion changing in later time into the Gneco- Roman custom of reclining on a couch with a cushion for the left elbow, and the right arm free ; but it is probable that these changes were (light, and that the phrase sitting at meat does not specify a posture such as that to which we give the nnnie.

Tims our Lord uses the plirase of the attitude in His o^vn time (Lk 14 17 22-''), and the multitude wluim He miraculously fed sat down on the ground (Jn (i'°). Of the tahles, we have pre- sfi VI il a ligure in the shewbread table on the Arch of Titus.

Thej' must have been high enough in the days of Adonibezck for the 70 captive kings to sit on a lower level (Jg 1') ; but the same phrase is used in NT times of the crumbs falling to the dogs under the table (Mt 15-'', Mk 7-''), and Lazarus is said to have sat at table at the feast (Jn 12'^).

The couches or mattresses on which the eaters sat or reclined are never mentioned except in the cases given above, and the stool in the prophet's chamber 18 the onlv material seat specilied in the OT, except royal thrones. At ordinary meals it is probable that the family squatted around the dish, out of which they all helped themselves, even as is done at the present day by the Bedawin. For an account of the ancient tables see Athenseus, Deipnosop/iis/ie, especially ii. 32.

The costly couches f^or reclining, with ivory corners, are mentioned in Am 3'^ and 6^. Homer refers to sitting at food, II. x. 578 ; Odi/x.i. i. 145. I'he food at an ordinary meal at present consists of messes of lentile-pottage (in nazid) eaten with bread or wooden spoons (Robinson, ii. 86 ; Gn 25^^). Sometimes this is thickened with vegetables, or pillaus of rice with or without meat, thin sheets of bread serving for plates, and used to sop up the gravy ( Finn, 24).

Sometimes bread, cheese, olives, and lehen make up the repast (Finn, 272). Doughty describes an Arab meal in which the family surrounded a vast trencher heaped with boiled mutton 'and great store of girdle bread.' Pieces torn ott' with tlie hand from the meat were lapped in the thin cakes of bread and handed to those >ylu> could not reach the dish (i. 46).

Robinson saw, likewise, the guests surrounding a circular tray on whieli was a mountain of pillau of rice boiled with butter, and small pieces of meat strewed through it. Other dishes used are sausages stufl'ed with rice and chopped meat. Burckhardt gives a graphic account of the discomforts of such a feast to one unaccustomed to Eastern habits, Nctcs, i. 63.

The poorer classes of Bedawin live chiefly on bread, eaten with raw leeks or radishes for flavouring, which is the 'dinner of herbs' (Pr 15" : see Ro 14-, Dn 1'=). For such a meal the son of the prophets went out to collect the '6r6th or herbs (2 K 4'"). The Bedawi meal described in Ezk 25' consisted of bread, dates, and milk. For an ordinary meal there is generally one dish, so that the member of the family who cooks, when it is brought in, has no further work.

Hence our Lord's remonstrance with Martha, that one dish alone was needful ( Lk 10-^). It was the duty of the cook to bring in the dishes when prepared (1 S 9^), and that of the head of the family to distribute the portions (1 S 1'), whose size might be varied according to his affection for the members of the circle. So Joseph gave Benjamin a fivefold mess, and Elkanah gave Hannah a double portion (but LXX says that he gave her only iiepiSa filau, 'a single portion,' because she had no child).

Very often, however, the circle help themselves w^hen they can reach the dish, and as the meat has been cut iip before being cooked it does not need any carving. At the present day the Mussulmans drink water or milk or leben vnth their meals, but probably in earlier tmies wine was used as a drink. In ancient times barley or polenta was used as rice is now, and the pillau was the ifKipiTUfiepa Kpia of the classics (see Oruner, de PHmit. Oblatione).

The food carried on journeys consisted of bread, cakes of figs or raisins, parched com, and water. The good Samaritan carried also wine and oil. Dough U sometimes carried tied in a wallet or cloth (sea Doughty, i. 231). Vll. Feasts, or special meals, were provided on particular occasions, and are frequently men- tioned. These were of various kinds — (1) Feasts of hospitality for the entertainment of stiangera (Gn IS-"-).

These might be at any time — Abra- ham's was at the heat of the day, Lot's (Gn 19'"') was in the evening. For such feasts at the present day see Burckhardt, Robinson, Doughty, etc. (2) Entertainments of friends specially invited (Lk 14'" and many other passages). These were usually evening feasts.

(3) Religious or sacrificial feasts, non-Jewish or Jewish, ' eating bread before God ' (Ex 18"), eating of sacrifices (Ex 34"> 29'^ Lv W- «, Nu 29>=f-, Dt 12' 27''- ', 1 S 9", 2 S 6'9, 1 K 1" 3", Zeph V) ; also at the offering of tithes (Dt 14^). Closely allied were (4) anniversary feasts, such as Passover (Ex 12'*), Purim (Est 9-"''), and the Lord's Supper.

(5) Celebrations of the completion of a great work, such as the building of the temple (2 Ch 7"), the carrying home of the ark (2 S 6"), a great deliverance (Jg 16-^), or the ratification of a treaty (Gn 26™ and 31'*). (6) At the beginning of a great work or lajdng a foundation. A refer- ence to such a feast is in Pr 9''^ (7) Harvest- homes (Ex 23'"), sheepshearing (1 S 25^, 2 S 13=«), vintage (Jg 9^), and other agricultural events, were likewise the occasions of feasting.

(8) Family events were celebrated by feasts of relatives and friends : circumcision (Lk i^-'")^ weaning (Gn 21"), marriage (Jn 2', Gn 29^-, To 8", Jg 14'", Mt 22-), the return of a wandering member (Lk IS''^), funerals (2 S 3"», Jer 16', Hos 9S To 4"). Birtliday feasts were not common among Jews, some of whom thought them profane (Light- foot, Iselius), probably because other nations, such as the Persians, honoured them so conspicuously (see Herod, i. 133). Birt!

«(lay feasts are mentioned in Gn 40'-", Job I'', Mt 14"""). Among modern Jewa the circumcision feast is an important occasion (see Circumcision). Any such feast was called nnj'p mishtch, the primary meaning of which is a banquet of \vine, such as that given by queen Esther (Est 5" 7"). Abraham's feast at Isaac's weaning is called a mishteh gCidul, or great drinking.

Job feared lest his sons should be led into excess at their periodic feasts (P) Such drinking feasts are specially mentioned in 1 S 25'", 2 S 13-", Dn 5', and reprobated by the prophets Amos (6") and Isaiah (5"). In the NT KiiyitM are spoken of in Ro 13", Gal 5^^', and 1 P 4*. The feast in 2 K 6^ is named .ti3 IcerAh, perhaps because the prisoner guests sat in a ring (cf. 3dj in 1 S 16").

F'or tihese banquets the food animals were slaii* early in the day (Is 22'^ Pr 9'^ Mt 22'), and t» second invitation sent to remind just before the feast (Est 6'^ Pr 9', Mt 22^). The guests on arrival were sometimes welcomed Avith a kiss (To 7", Lk 7^ ; see Goezius, de Osculo, in Ugolini, xxx.), and provided with water to wash their hands, as they put their hands in the common dish (Mk 7'; see Odijss. i. 136). These washings were made burden- some by traditional rituals ( Mk 7""").

When the visitors came from a distance they were supplied with water to wash their feet. So Abraham did for the angels at their noontide feast (Gn IS''), and Lot for their evening feast (Gn 19^). So the old man at Gibeah did for the Levite and his concu- bine (Jg 19-'). See our Lord's rebuke to Simon (Lk 7'''), His own practice (Jn 13), and apostolic reference (1 Ti 5'").

The anointing of guests is referred to in Ps 23', Am 6", Lk 7, Jn 12" (see Anointing ; and in addition to the literature quoted there, see Weymar, de Unctione Sacra Heh., in Ugolini, xii. ; Reinerus and Verwey, de FOOL FOOL Unrtionibus, and Graberg, de unrtione Christi in Belhania, in Ugolini, xxx.) The crowning of guests with garlands is mentioned in Is 28', Wis 2, Jos. Ant. XIX. ix. 1. See Plutarcli, Sijmp. III. i. 3, and Martial, x. 19.

After these pre- liminaries they sat down, males and females together (Ru 2", 1 S V, Job I-, Lk lO) ; and grace was said in Jewish feasts (Mt 14>», Lk 9'", Jn 6"). The guests were arranged in order of rank (Gn 43-«, 1 S 9" 20-», Lk 14", Mk \^->\ ios. Ant. XV. ii. 4), the highest occupying the 'chief room,' the seat on the prutoklisia. In Assjt. feasts they are represented as sitting ( Layard, Nine veh, ii. 4 11 ). For Jewish practice see above. According to the Tosaphoth to Berachoth, vi.

, each guest had a separate table, but Pr 23' speaks of sitting at meat with the host ; and David says that he sat at table with Saul (1 S 20=). The food was distributed either by the cook or by the head of the house (2 S 6'^, Gn 43'-'^), and the most honoured guest received the largest portion (Gn 43^* ; see Herod, vi. 57), or else the tit-bit (1 S 9-^). To guests who could not come, presents of food were sometimes sent (2 S IP, Neh 8'", Est 9"i-").

At a feast in NT times the guests reclined on a triclinium, t\\e couches being arranged on three sides of a square, the fourth side being open for serving, and strangers might stand around on the outer side (see Kashi, ad Berachoth, 466. 16 ; Pesachim, vii. 13). A wine cup was passed round con- taining wine mixed with three parts of water (Shahbath, viii.

1) ; to this there are many meta- phorical allusions in which the cup in tlie liand of the Lord is spoken of (Ps 75*, Jer 25" ; see Buxtorf, Synagog. Jud. xii. 242, and Werner, de Poculo Benedictionis). The guests were entertained with music (2 S 19«, Is 5'-, Am 6^>, Lk l.'r^ j see Maimonides, de Jejiiniis, 5), dancing (Mt 14^), and riddles (Jg 14'-). After the feast the hands were washed, as they were soUed by eating.

Finn saw a guest taking handfuls of buttered rice from the dish, out of which he squeezed the butter between his fingers and licked it as it flowed down (Bijewaijs, 171 ; Burckhardt, Notes, i. 63). Grace was said at the close of the meal (Dt 8'°, Ro 14" ; see Berachoth, vi. § 8).

Wedding feasts were given by the bride- groom ( Jg 14'°), but the arrangements were carried out under the direction of a symposinrch or ruler of the feast, and they sometimes lasted seven days (Jn 2S, To 7*; see Selden, de Uxor. Heb. ii. 11). Wedding garments given to guests are mentioned in Mt 22". The giver of the feast sometimes marked dis- tinguished guests by giving them a sop of bread held between the thumb and finger.

A \puitilov of this kind dipped in the luiruscth was given bj' our Lord to Judas. Sops are used to catch and convej' pieces of meat (Lane, i. 193 ; Burckhardt, i. 63). In Proverbs the laziness of the sluggard is said to be such that lie will not even lift up a sop (19-^ 26"). For metaphorical allusions to feasts see Is 25' ; the feast of angels at the finishing of creation is referred to in Job 38'. For Jewish feasts in general see Buxtorf, de conviviis vet. Uebricorum. LlTERATTTRK.

— For fooil-stuffs Bee Bochart, Uifrozoicon, Frankf. 1075 ; Tristram, Nat. Hist, of PaUahie; Post, Flora of Pah'stine ; Erman, L\fp in A iicient K<nfpf. IS'*-! ; Celsius, Ilierobo- taniron, Amst. 1748; Hiller, Uierophyton, I'libingen, 1723; Uosen- miiUer, Uolamj of the Ditile, Edinburgh, 1840. For customs, Hurckhardt, lieUeii in Syrieii, J'atiiatina, etc. (ed. Gesenius), Weimar, 1823, tiie same writer's Xotes on the Ucduuins ami Wahdbys, Lond. 1S.'{0. and his Travels in Arabia, I.oiid.

18211; Robinson, BUP (3 vols. 18(i7) ; Thomson. Laud and Hook (3 vols. 1881-86) ; Doutrhty, Arabia Denerta (;i vols. 1888) ; Finn, Ili/ewai/t in Palestine. Talmud ic quotations in the above article are from Sureiihusius (Amsterdam edition). A. MaCALISTKK.